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<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br /> <br /> 通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br /> <br /> 据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> <br /> 我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br /> <br /> ''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> <br /> “中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br /> <br /> ”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br /> <br /> 我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br /> <br /> 分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> 1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br /> <br /> 2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br /> <br /> 3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> <br /> 政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br /> <br /> 政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> 非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> 上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> 在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> “散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br /> 散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br /> 资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> '''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br /> <br /> 在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br /> <br /> 更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br /> 研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br /> 散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> <br /> 文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br /> <br /> 感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br /> <br /> - 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br /> <br /> 3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br /> 由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br /> <br /> 关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> 在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> <br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br /> <br /> 下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br /> <br /> 5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br /> 中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br /> <br /> “詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br /> 在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br /> 在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br /> <br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br /> <br /> 例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> <br /> 见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br /> <br /> 参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br /> 他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> <br /> 他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> - 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br /> <br /> '''2. 兼容性<br /> '''<br /> 为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br /> <br /> 首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> <br /> 然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br /> <br /> '''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br /> --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br /> <br /> 虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> 在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br /> <br /> 在第一章中，他说：&quot;年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道&quot;。<br /> <br /> &quot;情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（&quot;云和雨的游戏&quot;），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br /> <br /> 在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br /> <br /> 9. “非二进制小说”<br /> <br /> 可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> “非二元”小说<br /> <br /> 一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> 这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br /> <br /> 这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br /> <br /> 卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br /> 在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br /> <br /> 本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br /> 传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> 机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> 甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br /> <br /> &quot;两种类型的交际行为&quot;<br /> <br /> 1.<br /> 文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br /> <br /> 2.<br /> 上网行为(浏览网站)<br /> <br /> 3.<br /> 消费者行为(购买)<br /> <br /> 4.<br /> 喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.<br /> 持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.<br /> 习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> <br /> 7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br /> <br /> 8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br /> <br /> 9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> 6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br /> <br /> 7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br /> <br /> 8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br /> <br /> 9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> 到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br /> <br /> '''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br /> <br /> 1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br /> <br /> 2.过滤泡沫=&gt;支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> <br /> 4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br /> <br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> <br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> 4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会的两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 &quot;真实 &quot;的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟迫近的未来<br /> 1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=&gt;模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''8 结论与展望''' <br /> <br /> 数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br /> <br /> 尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br /> <br /> 人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br /> <br /> 人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> 个人简历<br /> <br /> 自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=119380 2020-12-27T14:22:36Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> <br /> 我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br /> <br /> ''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> <br /> “中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br /> <br /> ”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br /> <br /> 我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br /> <br /> 分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> <br /> 政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br /> <br /> 政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> 非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> 上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> 在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> “散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> '''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br /> <br /> 在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br /> <br /> 更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br /> 研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br /> 散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br /> <br /> - 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br /> <br /> 3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br /> 由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br /> <br /> 关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> 在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> <br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br /> <br /> 下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br /> <br /> 5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br /> 中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br /> <br /> “詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br /> 在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br /> 在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br /> <br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br /> <br /> 例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> <br /> 见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br /> <br /> 参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br /> 他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> <br /> 他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> - 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> <br /> 然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br /> <br /> '''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br /> --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br /> <br /> 虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> 在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br /> <br /> 在第一章中，他说：&quot;年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道&quot;。<br /> <br /> &quot;情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（&quot;云和雨的游戏&quot;），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br /> <br /> 在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br /> <br /> 9. “非二进制小说”<br /> <br /> 可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> “非二元”小说<br /> <br /> 一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> 这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br /> <br /> 这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br /> <br /> 卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br /> 在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br /> <br /> 本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br /> 传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> 机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> 甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br /> <br /> &quot;两种类型的交际行为&quot;<br /> <br /> 1.<br /> 文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br /> <br /> 2.<br /> 上网行为(浏览网站)<br /> <br /> 3.<br /> 消费者行为(购买)<br /> <br /> 4.<br /> 喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.<br /> 持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.<br /> 习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> <br /> 7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br /> <br /> 8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br /> <br /> 9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> 6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br /> <br /> 7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br /> <br /> 8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br /> <br /> 9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> 到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br /> <br /> '''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br /> <br /> 1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br /> <br /> 2.过滤泡沫=&gt;支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> <br /> 4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br /> <br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> <br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> 4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会的两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 &quot;真实 &quot;的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟迫近的未来<br /> 1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=&gt;模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''8 结论与展望''' <br /> <br /> 数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br /> <br /> 尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br /> <br /> 人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br /> <br /> 人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> 个人简历<br /> <br /> 自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118667 2020-12-21T14:16:30Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. <br /> <br /> The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent.(Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory.One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> * Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> * Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> * Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> * Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> * J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> * Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> * Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> * Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> * Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> * Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry.&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; should be given priority.<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also, &quot;When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; just concerns the surface structure, but &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. &quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;. &quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore, &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br /> <br /> Therefore, by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. &quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? &quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'', he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication.<br /> <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)<br /> <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages.<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10) <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time. <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.<br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)<br /> <br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005)<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” (Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.<br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> <br /> It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(2007).季羡林谈翻译.[Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].北京Beijing.当代中国出版社[Contemporary China Publishing House].<br /> <br /> * Liu Ting刘婷，Luo Chunpeng罗春朋.(2017).季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想.[Mr. Ji Xianlin’s Translation Principles and his Translation Thoughts ]. 南通大学学报. [Journal of Nantong University(Social Sciences Edition)]. (04) 93-98.<br /> <br /> * Wang Bingqin王秉钦.(2009)季羡林翻译思想“三论”.[Translation Thought of Ji Xianlin:”Three Theories”].中国外语. [Foreign Languages in China].(05):89-92.<br /> <br /> * Wu Guangting吴光亭.(2011).季羡林翻译思想初探[A preliminary research on Ji Xianlin’s thought on translation].周口师范学院学报.[Journal of Zhoukou Normal University]. (06):60-65.<br /> <br /> * Xu Xianwen许先文(2010).季羡林译学思想述评.[A discussion of Ji Xianlin’s thoughts on translation].学海. [Academia Bimestrie]. (02):213-216.<br /> <br /> * Xiao Zhiqing肖志清,Xie Shaohua谢少华.(2011).季羡林的翻译观探究[An Exploration into Ji Xianlin’s Views on Translation].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版) [Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences(Social Sciences Edition)],(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> * Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2006).季羡林与翻译[Ji Xianlin and Translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(06):54-57.<br /> <br /> * Li Jingduan李景端(2005).听季羡林谈翻译[Listen to Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(02):30-31.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(1984),罗摩衍那(七)[Ramayana(7)].北京Beijing:人民文学出版社.(People Literature Press):598.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林(1989),从斯大林论语言学谈到“直译”和“意译”[From Stalin’s discussion on linguistic to literal translation and free translation].当代文学翻译百家谈[Hundreds of Modern Literature Translation].北京Beijing:北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]:578.<br /> <br /> * Chinese Translators Dictionary’s Writing Group《中国翻译家辞典》编写组.(1988),中国翻译家辞典[Chinese Translators Dictionary].北京Beijing:中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation]:14-15.<br /> --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷方圆，202070080593.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> <br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> 张佩闻 202070080624<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118658 2020-12-21T14:14:21Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学 */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. <br /> <br /> The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent.(Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory.One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry.&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; should be given priority.<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also, &quot;When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; just concerns the surface structure, but &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. &quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;. &quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore, &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br /> <br /> Therefore, by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. &quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? &quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'', he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication.<br /> <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)<br /> <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages.<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10) <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time. <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.<br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)<br /> <br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005)<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” (Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.<br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> <br /> It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(2007).季羡林谈翻译.[Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].北京Beijing.当代中国出版社[Contemporary China Publishing House].<br /> <br /> * Liu Ting刘婷，Luo Chunpeng罗春朋.(2017).季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想.[Mr. Ji Xianlin’s Translation Principles and his Translation Thoughts ]. 南通大学学报. [Journal of Nantong University(Social Sciences Edition)]. (04) 93-98.<br /> <br /> * Wang Bingqin王秉钦.(2009)季羡林翻译思想“三论”.[Translation Thought of Ji Xianlin:”Three Theories”].中国外语. [Foreign Languages in China].(05):89-92.<br /> <br /> * Wu Guangting吴光亭.(2011).季羡林翻译思想初探[A preliminary research on Ji Xianlin’s thought on translation].周口师范学院学报.[Journal of Zhoukou Normal University]. (06):60-65.<br /> <br /> * Xu Xianwen许先文(2010).季羡林译学思想述评.[A discussion of Ji Xianlin’s thoughts on translation].学海. [Academia Bimestrie]. (02):213-216.<br /> <br /> * Xiao Zhiqing肖志清,Xie Shaohua谢少华.(2011).季羡林的翻译观探究[An Exploration into Ji Xianlin’s Views on Translation].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版) [Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences(Social Sciences Edition)],(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> * Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2006).季羡林与翻译[Ji Xianlin and Translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(06):54-57.<br /> <br /> * Li Jingduan李景端(2005).听季羡林谈翻译[Listen to Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(02):30-31.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(1984),罗摩衍那(七)[Ramayana(7)].北京Beijing:人民文学出版社.(People Literature Press):598.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林(1989),从斯大林论语言学谈到“直译”和“意译”[From Stalin’s discussion on linguistic to literal translation and free translation].当代文学翻译百家谈[Hundreds of Modern Literature Translation].北京Beijing:北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]:578.<br /> <br /> * Chinese Translators Dictionary’s Writing Group《中国翻译家辞典》编写组.(1988),中国翻译家辞典[Chinese Translators Dictionary].北京Beijing:中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation]:14-15.<br /> --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷方圆，202070080593.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> <br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> 张佩闻 202070080624<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118655 2020-12-21T14:13:33Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 4.1 The Content and Form in Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. <br /> <br /> The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent.(Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory.One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry.&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; should be given priority.<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also, &quot;When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; just concerns the surface structure, but &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. &quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;. &quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore, &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br /> <br /> Therefore, by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. &quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? &quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'', he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication.<br /> <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)<br /> <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages.<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10) <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time. <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.<br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)<br /> <br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005)<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” (Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.<br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> <br /> It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(2007).季羡林谈翻译.[Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].北京Beijing.当代中国出版社[Contemporary China Publishing House].<br /> <br /> * Liu Ting刘婷，Luo Chunpeng罗春朋.(2017).季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想.[Mr. Ji Xianlin’s Translation Principles and his Translation Thoughts ]. 南通大学学报. [Journal of Nantong University(Social Sciences Edition)]. (04) 93-98.<br /> <br /> * Wang Bingqin王秉钦.(2009)季羡林翻译思想“三论”.[Translation Thought of Ji Xianlin:”Three Theories”].中国外语. [Foreign Languages in China].(05):89-92.<br /> <br /> * Wu Guangting吴光亭.(2011).季羡林翻译思想初探[A preliminary research on Ji Xianlin’s thought on translation].周口师范学院学报.[Journal of Zhoukou Normal University]. (06):60-65.<br /> <br /> * Xu Xianwen许先文(2010).季羡林译学思想述评.[A discussion of Ji Xianlin’s thoughts on translation].学海. [Academia Bimestrie]. (02):213-216.<br /> <br /> * Xiao Zhiqing肖志清,Xie Shaohua谢少华.(2011).季羡林的翻译观探究[An Exploration into Ji Xianlin’s Views on Translation].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版) [Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences(Social Sciences Edition)],(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> * Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2006).季羡林与翻译[Ji Xianlin and Translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(06):54-57.<br /> <br /> * Li Jingduan李景端(2005).听季羡林谈翻译[Listen to Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(02):30-31.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(1984),罗摩衍那(七)[Ramayana(7)].北京Beijing:人民文学出版社.(People Literature Press):598.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林(1989),从斯大林论语言学谈到“直译”和“意译”[From Stalin’s discussion on linguistic to literal translation and free translation].当代文学翻译百家谈[Hundreds of Modern Literature Translation].北京Beijing:北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]:578.<br /> <br /> * Chinese Translators Dictionary’s Writing Group《中国翻译家辞典》编写组.(1988),中国翻译家辞典[Chinese Translators Dictionary].北京Beijing:中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation]:14-15.<br /> --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷方圆，202070080593.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> <br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> 张佩闻 202070080624<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118640 2020-12-21T14:09:39Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. <br /> <br /> The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent.(Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory.One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry.&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; should be given priority.<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also, &quot;When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; just concerns the surface structure, but &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. &quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;. &quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore, &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br /> <br /> Therefore, by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. &quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? &quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'', he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication.<br /> <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)<br /> <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages.<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10) <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time. <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.<br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)<br /> <br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005)<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word translation should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believes that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, confronted with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into a version that is faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of efforts on choosing the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” (Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison between the translation of Mr. Ji and that of another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose.<br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> For sentence patten like“It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated it into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated it into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the meaning of the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India, Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also discussed the influence of our translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.<br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> <br /> It means that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already totally different from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moves to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, if it is translated into another language, even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly showed Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary, 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap in the meaning with the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I do not think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good one's English is, he would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(2007).季羡林谈翻译.[Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].北京Beijing.当代中国出版社[Contemporary China Publishing House].<br /> <br /> * Liu Ting刘婷，Luo Chunpeng罗春朋.(2017).季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想.[Mr. Ji Xianlin’s Translation Principles and his Translation Thoughts ]. 南通大学学报. [Journal of Nantong University(Social Sciences Edition)]. (04) 93-98.<br /> <br /> * Wang Bingqin王秉钦.(2009)季羡林翻译思想“三论”.[Translation Thought of Ji Xianlin:”Three Theories”].中国外语. [Foreign Languages in China].(05):89-92.<br /> <br /> * Wu Guangting吴光亭.(2011).季羡林翻译思想初探[A preliminary research on Ji Xianlin’s thought on translation].周口师范学院学报.[Journal of Zhoukou Normal University]. (06):60-65.<br /> <br /> * Xu Xianwen许先文(2010).季羡林译学思想述评.[A discussion of Ji Xianlin’s thoughts on translation].学海. [Academia Bimestrie]. (02):213-216.<br /> <br /> * Xiao Zhiqing肖志清,Xie Shaohua谢少华.(2011).季羡林的翻译观探究[An Exploration into Ji Xianlin’s Views on Translation].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版) [Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences(Social Sciences Edition)],(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> * Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2006).季羡林与翻译[Ji Xianlin and Translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(06):54-57.<br /> <br /> * Li Jingduan李景端(2005).听季羡林谈翻译[Listen to Ji Xianlin’s discussion on translation].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal].(02):30-31.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林.(1984),罗摩衍那(七)[Ramayana(7)].北京Beijing:人民文学出版社.(People Literature Press):598.<br /> <br /> * Ji Xianlin季羡林(1989),从斯大林论语言学谈到“直译”和“意译”[From Stalin’s discussion on linguistic to literal translation and free translation].当代文学翻译百家谈[Hundreds of Modern Literature Translation].北京Beijing:北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]:578.<br /> <br /> * Chinese Translators Dictionary’s Writing Group《中国翻译家辞典》编写组.(1988),中国翻译家辞典[Chinese Translators Dictionary].北京Beijing:中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation]:14-15.<br /> --[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷方圆，202070080593.&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation. Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie1.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie2.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie3.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.ai qiyi]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> [[File:Zhang Jiajie4.png|400px|thumb|left|original source.tourists signs]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> <br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> 张佩闻 202070080624<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=118004 2020-12-21T09:52:20Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学 */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry.&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; should be given priority.<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language who are similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in ''Mount Louguan'' of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Also, Xu Yuanchong suggested : &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> Three resemblances are the basis of three beauties. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, three beauties and three resemblances should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also, &quot;When Resemblance in sense and Beauty in sense are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; just concerns the surface structure, but &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems. &quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it's very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;. &quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore, &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attains &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library, 2011:10)<br /> <br /> Therefore, by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices. &quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty. To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (Liu Chongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'': &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme? &quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'', he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; shows us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Especially as one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br /> <br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language. <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br /> [2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br /> [3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br /> [4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br /> [5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br /> [6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> 雷方圆 202070080593<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.png|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> <br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=117949 2020-12-21T09:25:44Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Key Words */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggested: &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Especially as one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br /> <br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language. <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br /> [2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br /> [3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br /> [4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br /> [5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br /> [6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> 雷方圆 202070080593<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> <br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=117923 2020-12-21T09:21:35Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 英语语言文学 */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 MTI 英美文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggested: &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Especially as one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br /> <br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language. <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br /> [2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br /> [3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br /> [4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br /> [5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br /> [6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> 雷方圆 202070080593<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ==== Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> [[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]<br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> <br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=117781 2020-12-21T08:31:59Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 英语语言文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggested: &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Especially as one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br /> <br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language. <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br /> [2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br /> [3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br /> [4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br /> [5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br /> [6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆, 202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> <br /> 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_13&diff=117775 2020-12-21T08:30:40Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories */</p> <hr /> <div>==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> <br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 英语语言文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggested: &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Especially as one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> Especially for one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br /> <br /> These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br /> <br /> It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”<br /> <br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> <br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> <br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> <br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> <br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> <br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> <br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> <br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> <br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> <br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> <br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> <br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> <br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> <br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> <br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> <br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> <br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> <br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> <br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> <br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> <br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> <br /> 我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> <br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> <br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> <br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> <br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> <br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> <br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> <br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> <br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> <br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> <br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> <br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language. <br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br /> [2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br /> [3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br /> [4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br /> [5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br /> [6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆, 202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> --[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015). ［Translation and Comics Perspectives]. 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(2013). 多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality]. ''四川文理学院学报'' Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science, (03)121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展 [Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of Jin Zhong University, (05)108-111.<br /> Li Zhanzi李战子. (2003). 多模态话语的社会符号学分析［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse]. ''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research, ( 5) 1-8.<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征. (2010). 多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究［A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements]. ''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China, (3)54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君. (2017). 中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China]. ''广东外语外贸大学学报'' Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2)40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹. (2006). 论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, ( 2) 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄. (2009). 多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education, (4)15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> <br /> 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> <br /> The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> <br /> ==Keywords==<br /> <br /> Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> 中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> <br /> ==关键词== <br /> <br /> 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)<br /> <br /> Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)<br /> <br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Differences==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116370 2020-12-20T09:11:23Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> '''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> '''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br /> <br /> Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&amp;魏向清&amp;赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br /> <br /> Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br /> <br /> Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br /> <br /> Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamic of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang Dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, for example, Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development built up its national power and created a harmonious cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultural and artistic forms blossomed and competed with each other.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality, because it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal works in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Western Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, deeply studied Buddhist texts, and was well excelled in Buddhist doctrine, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have met the demand of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but directly taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the words and meaning of the original text, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning, to make it easy for the reader to understand. Firstly, he understood the original text thoroughly, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translation of Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used translation techniques, such as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronouns reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Liang considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment-sentence 'is', the interrogative sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence 'be done' and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world., and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures. In the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions did no longer exist in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, put on wear Confucian costume, and integrated himself into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he put forward not only the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (win).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on many intellectuals of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang Xi, Yong Zheng and Qian Long were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole country closed its eyes and ears, and inhibited the development of thought, culture, science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed-door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other hand.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> It is difficult not only to translate but also to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot;--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed event in the history of modern translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literaries in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn reacts on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose a totally correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> &quot;The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot;(Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China spring up, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also tremendous. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new ideas and new concepts, broadens their horizons and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promotes the development of world history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation]46-48.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We in Translation Studies [A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation [C] . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]66-71.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]106-109.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Elephant Press]61-64.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Luxun Research Monthly]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio Film &amp; TV Press]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Their Teaching]23.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]43.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]12.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Ideology===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Poetics===<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Patronage===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> <br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br /> <br /> In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br /> <br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br /> <br /> Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br /> Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br /> Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br /> next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br /> In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br /> As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br /> It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 英语语言文学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggested: &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> Especially as one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br /> <br /> These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language. <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br /> [2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br /> [3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br /> [4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br /> [5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br /> [6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> 摘要前面格式注意：姓名学号居中写--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017,42)）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017,43)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun 2017,44)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun 2017,45)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun 2017,46）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. （插入照片） <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）(插入照片)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,89)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,91)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,92)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,93)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear删掉. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology, (1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly, (2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=116367 2020-12-20T09:09:11Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> '''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> '''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br /> <br /> Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&amp;魏向清&amp;赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br /> <br /> Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br /> <br /> Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br /> <br /> Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamic of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang Dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, for example, Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development built up its national power and created a harmonious cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultural and artistic forms blossomed and competed with each other.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality, because it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal works in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Western Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, deeply studied Buddhist texts, and was well excelled in Buddhist doctrine, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have met the demand of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but directly taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the words and meaning of the original text, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning, to make it easy for the reader to understand. Firstly, he understood the original text thoroughly, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translation of Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used translation techniques, such as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronouns reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Liang considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment-sentence 'is', the interrogative sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence 'be done' and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world., and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures. In the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions did no longer exist in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, put on wear Confucian costume, and integrated himself into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he put forward not only the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (win).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on many intellectuals of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang Xi, Yong Zheng and Qian Long were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole country closed its eyes and ears, and inhibited the development of thought, culture, science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed-door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other hand.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> It is difficult not only to translate but also to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot;--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed event in the history of modern translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literaries in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn reacts on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose a totally correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> &quot;The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot;(Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China spring up, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also tremendous. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new ideas and new concepts, broadens their horizons and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promotes the development of world history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation]46-48.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We in Translation Studies [A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation [C] . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]66-71.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]106-109.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Elephant Press]61-64.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Luxun Research Monthly]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio Film &amp; TV Press]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Their Teaching]23.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]43.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]12.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Ideology===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Poetics===<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Patronage===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> <br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180) <br /> <br /> In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br /> <br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.<br /> <br /> Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.<br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）''' <br /> Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''<br /> Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''<br /> next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. <br /> In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''<br /> As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''<br /> It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 英语语言文学<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as &quot;请不要吻我，我怕羞&quot;, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: &quot;wild west wind&quot; in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and &quot;the sunken sun&quot; in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; and make the translated text attain &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; at the same time.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggested: &quot;Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, we can translate &quot;多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。&quot; to &quot;So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.&quot;, these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, proper nouns &quot;秦汉&quot;（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun &quot;ancient times&quot;. Common noun &quot;关&quot; (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun &quot;the Great Wall&quot;. And, &quot;人&quot; (people) in the verse &quot;万里长征人未还&quot; (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to &quot;guards&quot; or &quot;soldiers&quot;. (Baidu library 2011: 10)<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.<br /> <br /> He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.<br /> <br /> As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s &quot;Shakuntala&quot; (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece &quot;Panchtantra&quot; (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.<br /> <br /> Especially as one of the two major epics in India &quot;Ramayana&quot;, Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.<br /> <br /> ===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication=== <br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)<br /> <br /> Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. <br /> <br /> &quot;Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)<br /> <br /> It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.<br /> <br /> All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> &quot;If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)<br /> <br /> The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation. <br /> <br /> “The Water from India&quot; mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.<br /> <br /> &quot;The Water from the West&quot; refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects. <br /> <br /> These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation. <br /> <br /> Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. &quot;If the &quot;Bible&quot; written in ancient Hebrew and the &quot;Gospel&quot; written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. &quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> At the same time, he pointed out that the &quot;Bible&quot; translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries.&quot;(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, &quot;the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22) <br /> <br /> I personally think that among the three characters, the first &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)<br /> <br /> ====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====<br /> It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that &quot;faithfulness&quot; is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”. <br /> <br /> In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: <br /> <br /> 罗摩这样说了以后，<br /> 大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。<br /> 这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，<br /> 就把神秘的兵器来解说：<br /> 萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，<br /> 还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，<br /> 名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，<br /> 钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。<br /> 罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，<br /> 提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、<br /> 陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、<br /> 达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。<br /> <br /> This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.<br /> <br /> ====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====<br /> The second is the “expressiveness&quot;, which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.” <br /> So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :<br /> 有成群的海豚和蛇，<br /> 还有来回游泳的鱼，<br /> 天空里好像布满了，<br /> 闪闪发光的这些东西。<br /> 天空里又像是布满了，<br /> 像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，<br /> 颜色灰白，水气极重，<br /> 忽然间就会四散飞奔。<br /> 有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，<br /> 有的地方，水流又被阻住，<br /> 有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，<br /> 有的地方，水又缓缓流出。<br /> 有的地方，水流同水流，<br /> 互相撞击，碰在一起，<br /> 一刹那间，流上天去，<br /> 但一转眼，又落下平地。<br /> This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. <br /> When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:<br /> 山溪中水缓缓流，<br /> 流水清澈似天空；<br /> 山头像大蟒蛇信，<br /> 吐出清水似水晶。<br /> 好像喜马拉雅山，<br /> 此山辉煌多洞穴，<br /> 罗波看那宾阇耶，<br /> 就走向那摩陀河。<br /> 圣水朝着西海流，<br /> 此河水流石上头；<br /> 公牛、小鹿和狮子，<br /> 豹子、熊罴和大象，<br /> 来到河中激起浪。<br /> Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)<br /> <br /> ====The third Criteria: Elegance====<br /> <br /> Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.<br /> <br /> Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article. <br /> <br /> In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:<br /> <br /> 罗摩说：“真是这样“，<br /> 他心里非常舒畅。<br /> 那些天上的光辉精灵，<br /> 有了形体，多福多幸，<br /> 对罗摩拱手说话，<br /> 声音甜蜜又动听:<br /> “虎般的人！下命令，<br /> 我们将何去何从？”<br /> <br /> In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.<br /> <br /> There is one more example:<br /> <br /> 那一位弥提罗的国王，<br /> 把自己的住处弥提罗城进。<br /> 那一位阿逾陀的城主，<br /> 也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。<br /> 跟在所有的仙人们的后面，<br /> 带着随从和兵卒向前奔。<br /> 虎般的人在前面走着，<br /> 带着一群仙人和罗摩。<br /> 这里和那里，成群的鸟，<br /> 对他大声唱出了悲歌。<br /> 所有大地上的鹿群，<br /> 都向着男方拼命奔波。<br /> <br /> In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the basis of &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Without &quot;faithfulness&quot; there is no &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;elegance&quot;. Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article &quot;Translation&quot; in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is loyal to the original work. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; is for the reader and &quot;elegance&quot; is for literary language. <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;: translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of &quot;faithfulness&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;, but without &quot;elegance&quot;. The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) <br /> <br /> With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: &quot;I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot;, or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) <br /> <br /> In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）<br /> <br /> Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.<br /> <br /> ===Advocation of Literal Translation===<br /> Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that &quot;literal translation is the overriding principle.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)<br /> <br /> When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic &quot;Ramayana&quot;, faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.<br /> <br /> Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. &quot;Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）<br /> <br /> From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose <br /> <br /> It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden. <br /> <br /> 这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）<br /> 那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）<br /> <br /> Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)<br /> <br /> But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)<br /> <br /> He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:<br /> &quot;A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures.&quot; (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in.&quot;<br /> <br /> At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style. <br /> <br /> The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）<br /> <br /> He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Opposition to translation through a third language.===<br /> It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.<br /> <br /> This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of &quot;more than nothing&quot; in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.<br /> <br /> If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from &quot; the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu&quot; as an example: &quot;Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different.&quot; After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）<br /> <br /> This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.<br /> <br /> ====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====<br /> As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies. <br /> <br /> In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books. <br /> <br /> Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as &quot;distortion&quot;, &quot;information loss&quot;, and &quot;information distortion&quot;. Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Pursue an ideal state.====<br /> Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:<br /> <br /> &quot;For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)<br /> <br /> Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.<br /> <br /> This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.<br /> <br /> Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：<br /> <br /> &quot;If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!&quot; (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)<br /> <br /> In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> [1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.<br /> [2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.<br /> [3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.<br /> [4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.<br /> [5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.<br /> [6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> 摘要前面格式注意：姓名学号居中写--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017,42)）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017,43)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun 2017,44)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun 2017,45)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun 2017,46）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. （插入照片） <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）(插入照片)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,89)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,91)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,92)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,93)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear删掉. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. 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(2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)<br /> These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called &quot;everything is silent&quot;. After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun&quot;, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faith, express, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of ​​paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post&quot;Sohu&quot; https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.<br /> <br /> *杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115636 2020-12-19T11:26:27Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Conclusion */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> '''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> '''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> From the analysis of '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', '''it can be seen''' that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. '''(focus on employing italics)'''<br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br /> <br /> Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&amp;魏向清&amp;赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br /> <br /> Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br /> <br /> Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br /> <br /> Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Ideology===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Poetics===<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Patronage===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. 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''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115627 2020-12-19T11:22:04Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China. */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> '''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> '''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.====='''(the first letters of words are written in capitals)'''<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).'''(punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Ideology===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Poetics===<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Patronage===<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology=== <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115602 2020-12-19T11:09:01Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> '''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> '''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western '''theory introduced''' and studied in China, which could be indicated from '''the number and content of the papers''' on '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' form 1980s till the present. --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between '''free''' translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which '''has been stagnating''' for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida &amp; Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br /> <br /> Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&amp;王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br /> <br /> Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br /> <br /> Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br /> <br /> Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br /> <br /> Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&amp;魏向清&amp;赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br /> <br /> Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br /> <br /> Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br /> <br /> Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115595 2020-12-19T10:57:01Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Summary */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> '''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> '''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115592 2020-12-19T10:55:18Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China==='''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, '''Chinese Translators Journal''' records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) '''(the name of the books and papers must be italicized )'''<br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao '''made''' introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> '''1)''' The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory'''. At the same time''' they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China '''have also spared''' no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992: 2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. '''Two''' of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> '''Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed.''''''(grammatical mistakes)''' Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida &amp; Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br /> <br /> Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&amp;王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br /> <br /> Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br /> <br /> Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br /> <br /> Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br /> <br /> Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&amp;魏向清&amp;赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br /> <br /> Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br /> <br /> Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br /> <br /> Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115585 2020-12-19T10:26:37Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 1. Nida and his Translation Theory */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> '''The name''' '''(delete)'''Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)'''(pay attention to punctuation)'''<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: '''''The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating'' (1959), ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964) and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(1969),''' which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous '''theories''' created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which '''was renamed''' functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” --[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br /> <br /> Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&amp;魏向清&amp;赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br /> <br /> Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br /> <br /> Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br /> <br /> Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. 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(2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. 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In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115580 2020-12-19T10:17:17Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> '''The name of magzines in this reference must be in italics. Please rectify your format of references according to Ling Zijin's thesis in Part 4.'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115577 2020-12-19T10:11:09Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as '''''The Scientific Exploration of Translation'', ''Translation Theory and Practice'', ''Language, Culture and Translating''''', etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like '''&quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and &quot;reader's response theory&quot;''', which have been popular and influential in the world till now.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and '''neglectd''' systematic and comprehensive theories. '''&quot;'''Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.'''&quot;''' (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of '''&quot;'''Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''&quot;''', '''Yan Fu's''' translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, '''Nida's''' theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of '''Nida's''' works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as '''&quot;Nida Phenomenon&quot;'''.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''', is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This '''chapter''' takes the '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of '''Nida's''' theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of '''Nida's''' translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115568 2020-12-19T09:53:40Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 关键词 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> 奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. (2015). 政府公文英译浅析新编奈达论翻译 [On the English Translation of Government Documents].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(06): 81-87.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida &amp; Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Bril.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). 新编奈达论翻译[On the English Translation of Government Documents]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation北京：中国对外出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1982). 翻译是一门科学——评介奈达著《翻译科学探索》 [Translation is a Science----Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal. (04):4-11.<br /> <br /> Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi. 衡孝军&amp;王成志. (1995). 等值翻译理论在汉英成语和谚语词典编纂中的应用 [The Application of Equivalence Translation Theory in the Compilation of Chinese English Idiom and Proverb Dictionaries].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):18-20.<br /> <br /> Huang Bangjie. 黄邦杰. (1996). 从《翻译与生活》看刘靖之的胆力与见地 [Liu Jingzhi's courage and insight in Translation and Life].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):40-42+46.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 介绍金隄、奈达合著《论翻译》 [An Introduction to Jin Di and Nida’s on Translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal, (02):56-57.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1989). 从奈达翻译理论的发展谈直译和意译问题 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation from the Perspective of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03):3-6.<br /> <br /> Li Shaoya. 李少彦. (2011).口译中超语言信息探析 [An analysis of Superlingual Information in Interpretation].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(03):41-44<br /> <br /> Li Tianxin. 李田心. (2000). 不存在所谓的翻译(科)学 [There is no So-called Translatology].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):8-10.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (1994). 也谈西方翻译理论中的等值论[On Equivalence Theory in Western Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05):35-37.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1992). 奈达与纽马克翻译理论比较[A Comparative Study of Nida’s and Newmark's Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):2-5.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (1996). 奈达翻译理论的一次实践 [A practice of Nida’s Translation Theory].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):7-10+17.<br /> <br /> Lin Kenan. 林克难. (2003). 外国翻译理论之适用性研究[On the Applicability of Foreign Translation Theories].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (04):46-48.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究 [On the Development of Chinese Translation Theory].中国翻译,1994(04):4-8.<br /> <br /> Liu Chaoxian 刘超先. (1994). 中国翻译理论的发展线索研究(续) [(On the Development of Chinese translation Theory Continued)]..中国翻译,1994(05):21-22.<br /> <br /> Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing. 刘润泽&amp;魏向清&amp;赵文菁. (2015). “对等”术语的谱系化发展与中国当代译学知识体系建构——兼谈术语翻译的知识传播与理论生发功能 [The Genealogical Development of the Term “Equivalence” and the Construction of the Knowledge System of Contemporary Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 36(05):18-24+127.<br /> <br /> Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2001). 结构·解构·建构——我国翻译研究的回顾与展望 [Structure, Deconstruction and Construction: A Review and Prospect of Translation Studies in China].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (06):8-11.<br /> <br /> Qian Linsheng.钱霖生. (1998). 读者的反应能作为评价译文的标准吗?——向金隄、奈达两位学者请教[Can the Reader’s Response be Used as a Criterion for Evaluating a Translation——Asking Jindi and Nida for Advice]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (02):42-44.<br /> <br /> Shi Heping. 时和平. (1987). 功能翻译理论的补充与发展——介绍奈达近作《从一种语言到另一种语言》[Supplement and Development of Functional Translation Theory——From one Language to Another]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 42-44.<br /> <br /> Sun Yu. 孙玉. (1994). 奈达的《语言,文化与翻译》评介[Introduction of Language, Culture and Translating]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 47-49.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代翻译理论在中国的传播与接受[The Spread and Acceptance of Western Modern translation theories in China]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,2000(05):15-19.<br /> <br /> Tu Guoyuan &amp; Xiao Jinyin. 屠国元,肖锦银. (2000). 西方现代译论在中国:影响与贡献[Modern Western Translation Theories in China: Influence and Contribution]. 长沙铁道学院学报 Journal of Changsha Railway University (01): 99-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Aiqin. 王爱琴. (2012). 入乎其内,出乎其外——论汉英旅游翻译过程中思维的转换与重写[Transformation of Thinking and Rewriting in C-E Tourism Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(01): 98-102.<br /> <br /> Wang Shoureng. 王守仁. (1992). 论译者是创造者 [On the translator as the Creator]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03): 45-48.<br /> <br /> Wang Zhaoyuan. 万兆元. (2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115566 2020-12-19T09:51:25Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115565 2020-12-19T09:49:43Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Keywords */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> '''Nida; translation theory; influence; Chinese translation studies'''--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115561 2020-12-19T09:47:15Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, '''and Asian countries, especially China.''' Since 1980s, '''Nida's''' translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking '''''Chinese Translators Journal''''' as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and '''content''' of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=115548 2020-12-19T09:40:08Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 摘要 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 论尤金·奈达翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的影响<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家，'''特别是中国'''影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.<br /> <br /> As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> <br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> <br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> <br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” <br /> <br /> Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> <br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.<br /> <br /> As an authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) <br /> <br /> Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). <br /> <br /> Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.<br /> <br /> Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.<br /> <br /> As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). <br /> <br /> However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> <br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）<br /> <br /> Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. <br /> <br /> Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). <br /> <br /> Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. <br /> <br /> Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cai Lijian. 蔡力坚. 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(2012). 翻译程序之为用大矣——以第23届韩素音青年翻译奖汉译英一等奖译文为例[The Value of Translation Procedures——Taking the Translation of the First prize of the 23rd Han Suyin youth translation award as an example ]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 33(03): 113-116.<br /> <br /> Xi Zhaoyan. 奚兆炎. (2007). 在高于句子的层次上翻译 [Translation at a level higher than sentences]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 1996(02):3-6.<br /> <br /> Ye Zinan. 叶子南. (2011). 碎影流年忆奈达 [Memories of Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 32(05): 86-87.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghao. 张经浩. (2000). 与奈达的一次翻译笔谈 [A translation talk with Nida]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (05): 28-33.<br /> <br /> Zhang JInghao. 张经浩. (2006). 主次颠倒的翻译研究和翻译理论 [Translation studies and translation theories based on the inversion of primary and secondary]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(05): 59-61.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong.张美芳&amp;钱宏. (2007). 翻译研究领域的“功能&quot;概念 [The concept of “function” in Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 28(03): 10-16+93.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.<br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.<br /> <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)<br /> <br /> In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> =====2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory=====[Maybe the format should like this.]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)<br /> <br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) <br /> <br /> As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)<br /> <br /> Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. <br /> <br /> Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） <br /> <br /> Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> === Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> 跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法<br /> <br /> === Introduction ===<br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)<br /> <br /> Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared. <br /> <br /> Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)<br /> <br /> For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called &quot;consecutive interpretation&quot; or &quot;continuous interpretation&quot;. It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)<br /> <br /> In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the &quot;interpretive theory&quot; of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first &quot;National Seminar on Translation Teaching&quot;. In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)<br /> <br /> In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan<br /> <br /> === 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations=== <br /> Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.<br /> === 1.1Color === <br /> Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.<br /> === 1.1.1Red=== <br /> <br /> Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include &quot;满堂红&quot;, &quot;万紫千红&quot;, &quot;大红大紫&quot;, etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the &quot;five-star red flag&quot;, &quot;red scarf&quot;, and &quot;red revolution&quot; embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)<br /> <br /> In &quot;The Scarlet Letter&quot; , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means &quot;loss&quot;. Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing. <br /> <br /> For example, what we say in Chinese &quot;红茶&quot; is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.2Yellow=== <br /> <br /> Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the &quot;color of the emperor&quot;. It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”&quot;yellow robe plus body&quot; to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese &quot;生在帝王之家&quot; corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and &quot;marry with the royal family or nobles&quot; is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning. <br /> Some words with &quot;黄&quot; in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, &quot;黄道吉日&quot; in English translates it into good luck, &quot;黄毛丫头&quot; in English translates it into a silly little girl, and &quot;黄花&quot; in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means &quot;cowardly, mean,&quot; and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using &quot;yellow&quot; to mean &quot;obscene and pornographic&quot;, blue is often used to mean &quot;yellow&quot; in Chinese, which means &quot;indecent and obscene&quot;. For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）<br /> <br /> At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.1.3Green=== <br /> In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a &quot;jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy&quot; Othello &quot;has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;a green eye,&quot; &quot;a green hand,&quot; &quot;As green as grass,&quot; &quot;A green eye,&quot; （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）<br /> <br /> So in Chinese &quot;envy&quot; or &quot;against the pink eye&quot; in English should be green - eyed, &quot;red eye&quot; in the Chinese into English in the &quot;green eyes&quot;, and if it is translated into &quot;red - eyed&quot; that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical &quot;jealous&quot; in English is called &quot;pink eyes&quot;. In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means &quot;new person,&quot; while a greenhorn means &quot;someone with no experience&quot; or &quot;someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs.&quot;(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 1.2Animal=== <br /> Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.<br /> === 1.2.1Dog=== <br /> Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example: <br /> 1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious<br /> 2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate<br /> 3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish<br /> 4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog<br /> 5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice<br /> 6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable<br /> <br /> 7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody<br /> 8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob<br /> <br /> 9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power<br /> <br /> 10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)<br /> On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:<br /> Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿<br /> Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物<br /> A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员<br /> Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖<br /> A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌<br /> Work like a dog——拼命工作的人<br /> To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心<br /> A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人<br /> An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩<br /> The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of &quot;freedom, equality and fraternity&quot;. Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. &quot;Dog is man's best friend&quot; is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of &quot;respecting guests before scolding dogs&quot; as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the &quot;fawning and fawning&quot; image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)<br /> <br /> === 1.2.2Dragon=== <br /> In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:<br /> O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!<br /> Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!<br /> Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!<br /> Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?<br /> Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The word &quot;龙&quot; in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as &quot;Dragons&quot;. The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's &quot;Four Tigers&quot; is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)<br /> <br /> The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)<br /> <br /> Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.Coping Strategies=== <br /> Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.<br /> === 2.1Good qualities of interpreters=== <br /> === 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech=== <br /> Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226) <br /> <br /> At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.<br /> <br /> Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)<br /> <br /> Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === 2.1.2Intercultural awareness=== <br /> For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, &quot;Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? &quot;Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> <br /> In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.<br /> === 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views=== <br /> Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of &quot;不忘初心&quot; is &quot;Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or &quot;Don't forget why we started&quot;, &quot;Remain true to our original aspiration&quot;, &quot;Stay true to our original mission&quot;, etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.<br /> === 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits=== <br /> The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate &quot;He works like a dog&quot; into &quot;他像狗一样地工作&quot;since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, &quot;坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐&quot; translated into &quot;We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes.&quot; In this context, Chinese people compare &quot;tigers&quot;, &quot;flies&quot; and &quot;foxes&quot; to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)<br /> === 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese=== <br /> Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if &quot;中小企业&quot; is translated into &quot;Medium and small-sized Enterprises&quot;do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into &quot;Small and medium-sized Enterprises&quot;. “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of &quot;暖心的故事&quot; is not &quot;warming-heart stories&quot;, but &quot;heart-warming stories&quot;. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Analysis of interpretation===<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.<br /> 　　<br /> Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情， 又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊， 我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动， 但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高， 有仙则名。国不在大， 热爱和平， 主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.<br /> Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, &quot;The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is&quot;, and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation. <br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一， 你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话， 一旦出事， 你可以放心， 中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆， 会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。<br /> <br /> Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of &quot;If you are the hype one&quot; for a rainy day. The language form of the clause &quot;you can rest assured&quot; is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of &quot;lawful assistance&quot; as &quot;to give you guidance&quot;. <br /> <br /> Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of &quot;If you are the hypeone&quot; in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause &quot;You can rest assured&quot; was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret &quot;lawful assistance&quot; directly as &quot;giving you guidance&quot;.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> 　　<br /> Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶， 我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用， 要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？<br /> Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original &quot;Is it clear? &quot;Is for the purpose of emphasizing&quot; can't say clearly &quot;. <br /> <br /> And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.<br /> <br /> Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing： 你的问题富有战略眼光， 你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。<br /> <br /> Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. &quot;Problems&quot; can't have &quot;strategic vision,&quot; it's the person asking the question who has &quot;strategic vision.&quot; When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation<br /> <br /> Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:<br /> <br /> Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of &quot;two exemptions and one subsidy&quot; starting from this year.<br /> <br /> Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the &quot;three Antis&quot;, &quot;Five Antis&quot;, &quot;four Antis&quot;, &quot;four Qing dynasties&quot;, &quot;Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves&quot; to the present &quot;three Represents&quot;, &quot;three agricultrals&quot;, &quot;eight honors and eight disgraces&quot; and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the &quot;two free and one supplement&quot; appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of &quot;two exemption and one supplement&quot;, without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation<br /> <br /> Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.<br /> <br /> Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;meaning meeting&quot;. However, English focuses on &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese &quot;Meaning association&quot;. However, English attaches great importance to &quot;speech and communication&quot;, and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, &quot;there are 1.3 billion people&quot; and &quot;there are 900 million farmers&quot; are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of &quot;meaning&quot; in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to &quot;the overall meaning of discourse&quot; in interpreting activities.<br /> <br /> On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)<br /> <br /> From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.<br /> <br /> Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.<br /> <br /> In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.<br /> <br /> === References ===<br /> <br /> *Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188<br /> <br /> *Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.<br /> <br /> *Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58. <br /> <br /> *Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English &quot;Dog&quot; Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158. <br /> <br /> *The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> *Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> --[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) <br /> <br /> Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) <br /> <br /> Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> <br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) <br /> <br /> Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> <br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===3.Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.Lefevere emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also achieve the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分看作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 14:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called &quot;zero translation&quot;, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> (1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader's Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> <br /> (1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> <br /> (2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> <br /> (3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> <br /> (4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> (1) Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ()He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> <br /> (1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> <br /> (2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> <br /> (3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> <br /> (4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the west, they clarify their theories from different perspective, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but also the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also become the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which lead to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning and understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation circle’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it with “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, which argues that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this kinf of definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages which share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics, perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed in translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinions on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each kind of language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ responses in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.<br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and redefining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views that people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 ==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences '''Between''' Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 '''major missed''' ==--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They '''both''' proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别 <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。'''其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及'''后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。'''因两人处于同一时代'''，其翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark '''attached importance to''' literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）<br /> '''<br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail '''and then''' introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence''', and in''' 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> '''Taking different types of texts into account''', Newmark divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view''', which''' nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation''', and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively'''. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark was opposite to Nida. Nida '''has''' said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered, and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）<br /> '''<br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved''', and''' only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing, and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)<br /> '''<br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal''', and''' there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions''', and''' it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is '''properer''' than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation '''attaches''' importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response. (source missed)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators '''use''' communicative translation method to translate informative texts.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as '''“请不要吻我，我怕羞”''', translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be considered good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed''':''' The readers who give responses should be a '''person''' who will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106) <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the translation of Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of '''translating''' Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations '''in the translation of other texts'''. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great '''influences''' on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and is presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauties Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> The &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot; Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important rule, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences in languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equations to express the &quot;Three Resemblances&quot; as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauties Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he points out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformations Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity. <br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauties theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblances Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformations Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purposes Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.<br /> <br /> He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like &quot;Theory of rivalry&quot;, &quot;Theory of advantage&quot;, &quot;Theory of art&quot;, &quot;Theory of recreation of beauty&quot;, etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2011.10.25).许渊冲的三论[Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Theory&quot;]. &quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c170134cfe4733687e21aa76.html<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.<br /> <br /> Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].<br /> <br /> Liu Chongde 刘重德(2003). 文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：中国Beijing: China Translation and Publish in Corporation.<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu 钱钟书, (2002).七缀集[Qi Zhui Ji] 北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店 Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company.<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Beauty&quot; Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot; ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> 当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> 关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）<br /> <br /> Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）<br /> <br /> It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)<br /> <br /> In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)<br /> <br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）<br /> <br /> Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）<br /> <br /> From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).<br /> <br /> O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). <br /> <br /> This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）<br /> <br /> But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）<br /> <br /> At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）<br /> <br /> However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）<br /> <br /> So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;<br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> <br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) <br /> <br /> Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)<br /> <br /> The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)<br /> <br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）<br /> <br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)<br /> <br /> <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）<br /> <br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）<br /> <br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)<br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）<br /> <br /> The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）<br /> <br /> On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)<br /> <br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)<br /> <br /> Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)<br /> <br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)<br /> <br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)<br /> <br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)<br /> <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)<br /> <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）<br /> <br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo. (2015).［Multimodality, Translation and Comics Perspectives］.Studies in Translatology ,(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> SR Roberts . (2006).［The grammar of visual design］. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(2):209-228.<br /> <br /> O'Halloran.(2007).［MATHEMATICAL DISCOURSE—LANGUAGE, SYMBOLISM AND VISUAL IMAGES]. Applied Linguistics, (4):630-634.<br /> <br /> Royce.(2002).［Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy ].TESOL Quarterly,(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> Chen Gang陈 刚.(2004).''旅游翻译与涉外导游''［Tourism Translation and Guide-Interpreting Studies］.Bei Jing:中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br /> <br /> Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong陈新仁,钱永红.(2011).多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［The Application of Multimodal Discourse Analysis in Pragmatic Research］．中国外语Foreign Languages in China,( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> Hu Zhuanglin胡壮麟. (2007.)社会符号学研究中的多模态化［Multimodalization in Social Semiotic］.''语言教学与研究''Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies,( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> Li Jian黎健.(2013).多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探［Exploration of Tourism Translation from the Perspective of Multi -modality].''四川文理学院学报''Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science,(03):121-125.<br /> <br /> Li Yan刘燕. (2011)多模态话语分析研究在中国的发展[Multimodal Discourse Analysis in China]. ''晋中学院学报''Journal of JINZHONG University,28(005):108-111.<br /> <br /> 李战子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse］.''外语研究''Journal of Foreign Language Research，2003( 5) : 1-8<br /> <br /> Sun Zheng孙征.(2010).多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [A Co-relational Study of Multimodal PPT Presentation and Students’ Learning Achievements].''中国外语''Foreign Languages in China，(3):54-58.<br /> <br /> Xu Mianjun许勉君.(2017).中国多模态翻译研究述评[A Review of Multimodal Translation Studies in China].''广东外语外贸大学学报''Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，(2):40-46.<br /> <br /> Zeng Dan曾 丹.(2006).论导游词英译［On C-E Translation of Tour Commentaries］.''中国科技翻译''Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal,( 2) : 36- 39．<br /> <br /> Zhang Denglu张德禄.(2009).多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [Multimodal Discourse Theory and Its Application to Foreign Language Teaching with Modern Media Technology］.''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education,(4):15-20。<br /> <br /> Zhu Yongsheng朱永生.(2007).多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis].''外语学刊''Journal of Research ,(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> <br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> ==Introduction==<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> ==Western Translation History==<br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> <br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> <br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> <br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> <br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> <br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> <br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> ==Chinese Translation History==<br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> <br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> <br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> <br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> ==Similarities==<br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> <br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> <br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> <br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> ==Difference==<br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> <br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> <br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epochmaking theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues,Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise.And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> <br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative. On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for awhole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> ==Conclusion==<br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> ==Reference==<br /> <br /> *陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008<br /> <br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.<br /> <br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.<br /> <br /> *梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.<br /> <br /> *李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax][J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition)''] [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories][J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.<br /> <br /> *谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.<br /> <br /> *王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113825 2020-12-17T13:32:49Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 4.1 The Content and Form in Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> = = Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> 英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略<br /> <br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> 改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。<br /> <br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under References.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field, who has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language's receivers and the source language creators are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transferring, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and styles can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary include five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Also, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, Chinese is paratactic, their tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English, but in Chinese there is no relational pronouns, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses need to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved through translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must be a master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target readers to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. The first one is equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; The second is natural. It refers to the target language. The third is the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”. Because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, it requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the styles of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original text in time. In order to achieve this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Readers' response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Readers' response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires us to use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Readers' response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus attaching more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depend on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works are translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicted language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, played an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)<br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69) <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113814 2020-12-17T13:27:09Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> = = Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies<br /> <br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under References.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)<br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113804 2020-12-17T13:23:54Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> = = Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under References.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. 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(1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 56) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113801 2020-12-17T13:22:39Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> = = Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Tao Ye 202020080644 &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> <br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.<br /> <br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under References.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. 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(1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.<br /> <br /> After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. <br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.<br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices.&quot;Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it.&quot;((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, followed by his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;. And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.<br /> <br /> On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': &quot;Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary.&quot; (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. <br /> <br /> Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; in his ''On Famous Translators'':&quot;Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference.&quot; (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)<br /> <br /> On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : &quot;Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?&quot; and &quot;Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme.&quot; (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound. <br /> <br /> Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of &quot;le Rouge et le Noir&quot;'' , he pointed out that: &quot;Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and &quot;It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood.&quot;(Xu Jun 1996:47).<br /> <br /> In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's &quot;transformation method&quot; had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to &quot;micro-details&quot; and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three Transformation Theory&quot; which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His &quot;Three-Beauty theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113733 2020-12-17T12:34:35Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. 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(1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. 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''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. 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TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113725 2020-12-17T12:31:44Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original one, with no available vocabulary or grammars that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113638 2020-12-17T11:28:53Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. 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''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback.<br /> <br /> Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. <br /> <br /> As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113636 2020-12-17T11:28:08Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. <br /> <br /> Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113635 2020-12-17T11:27:15Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 4.1 The Content and Form in Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. <br /> <br /> The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. <br /> <br /> And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. <br /> <br /> The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. <br /> <br /> However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. <br /> <br /> Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. <br /> <br /> In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113631 2020-12-17T11:25:36Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. 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(1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. <br /> <br /> In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. 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[Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113627 2020-12-17T11:23:20Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) <br /> <br /> And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) <br /> <br /> The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. <br /> <br /> Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113626 2020-12-17T11:22:14Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. 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''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. <br /> <br /> Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. <br /> <br /> What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) <br /> <br /> Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113624 2020-12-17T11:20:38Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondences of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the target language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refer to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) <br /> <br /> This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. <br /> <br /> It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. <br /> <br /> One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. <br /> <br /> The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113621 2020-12-17T11:16:42Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become the most influential work in contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interpreted some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he regards translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two kinds of grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degrees of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means that every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text which are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter how grammatical structure or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not be equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level of language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however,it is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the key point. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese means “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only the use of phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to their languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text to achieve equivalence, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation will be. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:15, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc.<br /> <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. 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In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113619 2020-12-17T11:14:56Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. <br /> Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. <br /> As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. <br /> In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. <br /> Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. 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TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=113615 2020-12-17T11:08:49Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of papers related to Nida from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.<br /> <br /> Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have always focused on practice and neglect systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China. In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon”.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies. As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of the Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.<br /> <br /> Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. At the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of the Bible Translation Department. It is precisely because Nida served this base for a long time that his translation ideas were deeply marked with his uniqueness and has established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)<br /> <br /> According to Tan Zaixi's study, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV). <br /> <br /> Devoted himself in the translation of the Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like: The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:<br /> 1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida &amp; Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea totally.<br /> 2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in term of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)<br /> 3) One of the most famous theory created by Nida is the dynamic equivalence, which was renamed to functional equivalence later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message.(Nida 1964: 163)” Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language, but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)<br /> 4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964 )<br /> <br /> In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory have created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV） In addition, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Nida’s has tremendous contribution to the Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it still remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===<br /> <br /> As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began at 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field in a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world. As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====<br /> <br /> The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11) Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also made attempt to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).<br /> <br /> Among all those papers, there was also voices of criticism but the number of that is still few. Although Mr. Lao make introduction of Nida, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China ( Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988 :42-44) <br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====<br /> <br /> The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies. <br /> <br /> 1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, at the same time they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spare no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49). Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translator. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and NewMark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to giving some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).<br /> <br /> 2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun &amp; Wang Chengzhi (Heng &amp; Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. One of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into the compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.<br /> <br /> 3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of Nida’s theory’ application in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====<br /> <br /> The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ transtatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.<br /> <br /> 1) Li Tianxin mention the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of transtatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).<br /> <br /> 2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theory with Nida’s functional equivalence to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang &amp; Qian Hong was an representative. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang &amp; Qian 2007: 10-16+93.). <br /> <br /> 3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progresses but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida’s and his theories was never a single subject but was included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence, and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).<br /> <br /> ====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====<br /> <br /> The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze &amp; Wei Xiangqing &amp; Zhao Wenjing (Li &amp; Wei &amp; Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures. Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there were a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, but it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream of Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> ====Summary====<br /> <br /> According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation. As the study went further, more and more criticism were formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide better reference for Chinese translation. Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all the Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Influences of Nida’ s Theory in China===<br /> <br /> As a major figure in translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the numbers and contents of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal form 1980s till the present. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives, but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)<br /> <br /> It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings on this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933). However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between Free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994(04): 6-8).<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards the western translation theories.<br /> =====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====<br /> In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused at the 1950s because of some social unrests, which has stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu's theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being.（Tu &amp; Xiao: 2000:9）Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in the translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols. In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translationBy studying, learning and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116). <br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> Since shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this fields. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of the western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories. Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage. While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====<br /> <br /> After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation. The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different, and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61). Moreover, it has encouraged the Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of critical point of view, like positive and negative sides, and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, we can see that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response and the procedure of translation, which had the significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.<br /> Through the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, exceling in guiding the translation of Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal. However, in the later stage Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory. At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study. Nida’s theory of translation has opened up new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution of Nida to the field of Chinese translation.<br /> <br /> ===references===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the &quot;initial development period&quot; in the 1990s, the &quot;emerging period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century, and the &quot;diversified development period&quot; in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.<br /> <br /> Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of &quot;global village&quot; has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.<br /> <br /> ===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called &quot;tongue man&quot;, while we in the &quot;Book of Rites - King's system&quot; “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And &quot;The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official&quot; (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or &quot;consecutive translators,&quot; as they were called). &quot;The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.<br /> <br /> From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by &quot;simultaneous interpretation&quot;, made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role. <br /> <br /> The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. <br /> <br /> However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.<br /> <br /> Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====<br /> <br /> Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources. <br /> Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations<br /> There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.<br /> <br /> Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.<br /> <br /> But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.<br /> <br /> Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.<br /> （https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）<br /> （https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）<br /> <br /> ====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The Pre-research Period<br /> <br /> From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.<br /> <br /> The Experimental Psychology Period<br /> <br /> From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process. <br /> From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.<br /> <br /> The Renewal Period<br /> <br /> It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.<br /> 西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====<br /> <br /> Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called &quot;tongue man&quot; or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The &quot;Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator&quot; (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: &quot;translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter.&quot;(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: &quot;Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000.&quot; (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book. <br /> <br /> Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.<br /> <br /> Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. <br /> <br /> The &quot;Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination&quot; has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and &quot;Research and Practice of Interpreting&quot; as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, &quot;Interpretation Research and Practice&quot; has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies). <br /> <br /> ====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====<br /> <br /> The &quot;budding period&quot; from the late 1970s to the late 1980s<br /> <br /> During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the &quot;United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course&quot; in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Initial Development Period&quot; in the 1990s<br /> <br /> Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the &quot;initial development period&quot;. Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.<br /> <br /> During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Emerging Period&quot; in the first decade of the 21st century<br /> <br /> With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009. <br /> In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.<br /> <br /> During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.<br /> <br /> The &quot;National Conference on Interpretation&quot; was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed &quot;Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China&quot;.With the theme of &quot;Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China&quot;, the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.<br /> <br /> The &quot;Period of Diversified Development&quot; in the Second Decade of the 21st Century<br /> <br /> From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.<br /> The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.<br /> <br /> During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous &quot;Benjamins Translation Library&quot; under the title of &quot;Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China&quot;. The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became &quot;an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research&quot; (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).<br /> <br /> And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.<br /> <br /> However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.<br /> <br /> Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and &quot;it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.<br /> <br /> according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.<br /> <br /> Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.<br /> <br /> With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.<br /> <br /> http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.<br /> <br /> Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002<br /> *【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007<br /> *【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72<br /> *【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.<br /> *【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm<br /> *【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. <br /> <br /> According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). <br /> <br /> And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> <br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.<br /> <br /> This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. <br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. <br /> <br /> At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. <br /> <br /> The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. <br /> <br /> The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. <br /> <br /> As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. <br /> <br /> The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. <br /> <br /> His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. <br /> <br /> Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. <br /> <br /> After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). <br /> <br /> It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. <br /> <br /> In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. <br /> <br /> The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. <br /> <br /> In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. <br /> <br /> Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. <br /> <br /> The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) <br /> <br /> At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; <br /> <br /> The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory.&quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution&quot; replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. <br /> <br /> Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> <br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. <br /> <br /> All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> <br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> <br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> <br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. <br /> <br /> &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> <br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> <br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===IV.Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> <br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. <br /> <br /> Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==<br /> &lt;center&gt;文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===题目===<br /> 根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965,20) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999,xv）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20) <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that &quot;any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.&quot; The later refers to that &quot;any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.&quot; He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> *King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> *Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> *Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> *No x in Nixon.<br /> *上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000） Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')<br /> <br /> From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> *Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> *Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> *Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> *Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> *Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> *You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> *Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> *Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> *Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br /> *Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> *Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).<br /> *Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).<br /> *Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].<br /> *Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].<br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].<br /> *Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].<br /> *Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. 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''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈江宁 Chen Jiangning &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called Language and Translation that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)<br /> <br /> ===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===<br /> ====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====<br /> Generally speaking, former translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning; its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar, the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484) <br /> <br /> Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====<br /> Bell in his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book Contemporary Translation Studies in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like translation, translator, and translation theory. Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six presumptions towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax、semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)<br /> <br /> All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> <br /> ===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===<br /> ====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====<br /> Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that there will be prescriptive colors. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. So it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first. Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from other linguistic schools is that they emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory, and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)<br /> <br /> According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not formally, but contextually. Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activity, rather than seeing whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====<br /> It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the original author and the original reader, and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and these two processes both need to use language to communicate. Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of system theory and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)<br /> <br /> According to Roger T.Bell's book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; third, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store)、LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)<br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)<br /> <br /> The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text. In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)<br /> <br /> It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====<br /> It can be inferred that the study of translation process models will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other Disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)<br /> However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===<br /> ====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem. As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)<br /> <br /> Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, intralingual or interlingual—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)<br /> <br /> Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)<br /> <br /> To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====<br /> As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided for us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.<br /> <br /> Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.<br /> <br /> Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.<br /> <br /> Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.<br /> <br /> Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.<br /> <br /> Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.<br /> <br /> Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.<br /> <br /> Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman. <br /> <br /> Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman. <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the west have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as a subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives at that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:58, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.(Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)<br /> <br /> But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)<br /> <br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140) <br /> <br /> Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964) <br /> <br /> Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)<br /> <br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)<br /> <br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> <br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> <br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)<br /> <br /> To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)<br /> <br /> According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007) <br /> <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)<br /> <br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)<br /> <br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)<br /> <br /> Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)<br /> <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)<br /> <br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> <br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> <br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. <br /> This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)<br /> <br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)<br /> <br /> Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> * Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.<br /> <br /> * Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.<br /> <br /> * Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br /> <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).<br /> <br /> * Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> * Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> * Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.<br /> <br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> * Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practice, he said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as &quot;the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. <br /> <br /> But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: &quot;art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot;, which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> ===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===<br /> Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and classic-Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. <br /> <br /> In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions. After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.<br /> <br /> As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements,Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉)'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French. He has translated and published 60 books in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad. <br /> <br /> For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literary Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme -from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. <br /> <br /> The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: &quot;Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: &quot;Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience.&quot; (Xu Jun, 2010:270).<br /> <br /> As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: &quot;Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry&quot; (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including &quot;Three-beauty Theory&quot; (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; (generalization, equalization and particularization)，&quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),&quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), &quot;Theory of Rivalry&quot;, etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)<br /> <br /> Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Three-beauty Theory===<br /> The &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': &quot;There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes.&quot;(Lu Xun, 1976) <br /> <br /> In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)<br /> <br /> Firstly, &quot;Beauty in sense&quot; is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.<br /> <br /> Secondly, &quot;Beauty in sound&quot; ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, &quot;beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that &quot;When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley...&quot; (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) <br /> <br /> Lastly, &quot;Beauty in form&quot; requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Resemblance Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; is the basis of &quot;Three Beauty&quot;. Because &quot;Resemblance&quot; is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but &quot;Beauty&quot; is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; and &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey &quot;Beauty in sense, sound and form&quot;of the original poem, the degree of &quot;Resemblance in sense, sound and form&quot; in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)<br /> <br /> &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)<br /> <br /> Firstly,&quot;Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; is the most important, followed by &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in sound&quot;. If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take &quot;Resemblance in sense&quot; and give up the other two. Also,&quot;When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)<br /> <br /> Secondly,&quot;Resemblance in form&quot; generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems.&quot;If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable.&quot;(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve &quot;Resemblance in form&quot; because of differences languages. So &quot;it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy.&quot; (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)<br /> <br /> Lastly,&quot;Resemblance in sound&quot; refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style.&quot;There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem.&quot;(Baidu library 2020: 3)<br /> <br /> But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a &quot;Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory&quot;: &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;, &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot; and &quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot;.&quot;Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages.&quot; (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)<br /> <br /> Xu employed the math equation to express the &quot;Three Resemblance&quot; as follows:<br /> <br /> Resemblance in form: 1+1&lt;2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2<br /> <br /> Resemblance in spirit: 1+1&gt;2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)<br /> <br /> Therefore,&quot;Resemblance in spirit&quot; is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain &quot;Resemblance in form&quot;. If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only &quot;Resemblance in meaning&quot;. (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)<br /> <br /> ===Three-Transformation Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: &quot;The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time.&quot;(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; which includes &quot;equalization, generalization and particularization&quot;. <br /> <br /> Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) <br /> <br /> Therefore,by using &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot;, we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.<br /> <br /> ===Three-Purpose Theory===<br /> &quot;Three-Purpose Theory&quot; is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which &quot;originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading.&quot;(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) <br /> <br /> So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance Theory&quot; and &quot;Three-Transformation Theory&quot; that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.<br /> <br /> ===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Lu Xun 鲁迅,(1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature].凤凰出版社[Phoenix Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation &amp; Publishing Corporation].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1998).文学翻译谈[Literary Translation Theories].台北:书林出版有限公司[Taipei: Shulin Publishing Co.LTD].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation].北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2006).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京:五洲传播出版社[Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong].北京：中译出版社[Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015).从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty Theory&quot;].贵州师范大学[Guizhou Normal University].<br /> <br /> Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot; and &quot;Three-Beauty&quot; -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of &quot;Ru Meng Ling&quot;].海外英语[Overseas English].<br /> <br /> Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory].&quot;Baidu library&quot;. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html<br /> <br /> Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Three-Beauty&quot;, &quot;Three-Resemblance&quot;, &quot;Three-Transformation&quot; and &quot;Three-Purpose&quot;].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].<br /> <br /> Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's “Three-Transformation Theory&quot; in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. 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TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.<br /> Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference<br /> <br /> 摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。<br /> 关键词 中西译论 历史 相似性 差异性<br /> <br /> A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History<br /> 中西文化史比较<br /> <br /> Introduction<br /> Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.<br /> <br /> Western Translation History<br /> <br /> Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.<br /> The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）<br /> Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo &quot;Translation Institute&quot; and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）<br /> The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)<br /> The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)<br /> The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)<br /> After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)<br /> After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)<br /> <br /> Chinese Translation History<br /> <br /> There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.<br /> The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of &quot;faithful and easy to understand&quot; in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)<br /> The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country. These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people’s horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc.; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time. Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including &quot;Heavenly Evolution&quot;. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000, 62-67)<br /> The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)<br /> The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of &quot;similarities&quot;, Qian Zhongshu’s theory of &quot;transcendence&quot;, and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness&quot;. (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)<br /> The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)<br /> <br /> Similarities<br /> <br /> Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the &quot;no text decoration&quot; translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be &quot;slaughtered&quot; at will, so they had the translation principle of &quot;comparable to the original&quot; and &quot;surpassing the original&quot;. On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)<br /> The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)<br /> Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between &quot;literal translation&quot;, &quot;free translation&quot;, &quot;dead translation&quot; and &quot;live translation&quot;. It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become &quot;speakers&quot; rather than &quot;stiff interpreters&quot; when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: &quot;imitation/paraphrase&quot; proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, &quot;dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence&quot; and &quot;formal equivalence&quot; proposed by Nida in the 20th century, &quot;communicative translation&quot; and &quot;semantic translation&quot; proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;.(Tan Zaixi1999，25)<br /> When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) &quot;Shensi&quot; (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: &quot;beautiful and unfaithful woman&quot; (Menar Day), &quot;translator is a slave&quot; (Dreiden), &quot;dancing on a rope wearing shackles&quot; (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)<br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot; originated from Zhi Qian's &quot;Faju Jingxue&quot;. Lao Tzu said &quot;beauty without faith, faith without beauty&quot;. In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The &quot;faithfulness&quot; that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)<br /> In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:<br /> The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the &quot;Bible&quot; translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of &quot;Neo-Confucianism&quot; in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word &quot;translation&quot; is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of &quot;matching the original&quot;, in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to &quot;enrich the country and strengthen the army.&quot; As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）<br /> <br /> Difference<br /> <br /> Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.<br /> First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward &quot;sublimation&quot;. Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for &quot;establishing translation studies&quot; was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's &quot;Theoretical Issues of Translation&quot; (1963), Nida's &quot;Science in Translation&quot; (1964), and Catfodr's &quot;The Linguistic Theory of Translation&quot; (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)<br /> The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> In Chinese thinking habits, &quot;enlightenment&quot; is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to &quot;subject&quot; and &quot;object&quot;. For example, in Cicero's &quot;On the Best Speakers&quot;, anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the &quot;object&quot;, and the beneficiary students are the &quot;recipients.&quot;(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)<br /> The third difference lies in the expression of translation theory between China and the West.  China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others. As the saying goes, &quot;everything is in the air&quot;.  After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; in &quot;Tian Yan Lun”, apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word &quot;faith&quot; in the three-character principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; mean? What do &quot;da&quot; and &quot;ya&quot; mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu had almost not given any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. And if such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru, 163)<br /> The fourth difference is Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them tend to respect authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the emperor or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least someone not dare to query easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated too, but not that more. People have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and no literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative  &quot;On the Principles of Translation&quot; published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from  regarded him as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his &quot;Three Principles of Translation&quot; are exactly the same as Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance&quot; for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theory is far less than that Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory. (Tan Zaixi2000，17)<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around &quot;literal translation.&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;. At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> *陈大亮Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories in theory types [A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008: 1.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation concepts [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012, 27(02): 66-69.<br /> *梁旦Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比A comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016(02): 103-104.<br /> *李旋. Li Xuan中西翻译高潮之对比Comparison between Chinese and Western translation climax [J]. 青年文学家Youth Literator, 2012(03): 131-132.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译简史（增订版）A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated edition) [M]. 商务印书馆Commercial Press, 2004<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性Similarities between Chinese and Western translation theories [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1999(06): 25-28<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性The differences between Chinese and Western translation theories [J].中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 2000(01): 15-21.<br /> *谭载喜Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈 A brief discussion about the history of Translation in China and the West [J]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal, 1985(07): 36-39.<br /> *王小晴Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究A Comparative Study on Translation theory between China and the West [J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学)Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009(02): 85-87.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=113597 2020-12-17T10:31:51Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> <br /> 而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗：&quot;为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。&quot; --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 &quot;人民交通警察&quot;，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br /> <br /> 但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br /> <br /> 今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br /> <br /> 1989.9.13<br /> <br /> 请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br /> <br /> 但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 &quot;表演 &quot;过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 &quot;区级保护单位 &quot;的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br /> <br /> 今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> 请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 &quot;三十多年前 &quot;相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> <br /> '''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br /> 以九月寓言为背景'''<br /> <br /> 吕杰<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br /> 但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> <br /> 最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br /> <br /> <br /> ......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br /> <br /> Works Cited（不用翻）<br /> <br /> Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br /> <br /> Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br /> <br /> Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br /> <br /> Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br /> <br /> Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br /> <br /> Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.” <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ] <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br /> <br /> 那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> <br /> 这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br /> <br /> 我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> 张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br /> <br /> 在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br /> <br /> 1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br /> <br /> 与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br /> 从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> 在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> 在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br /> <br /> '''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br /> <br /> 这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br /> <br /> 这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> 王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在&quot;文化大革命&quot;后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br /> <br /> 朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br /> <br /> 1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 &quot;堕落 &quot;了，后来成了民族 &quot;汉奸&quot;。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> 本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=113595 2020-12-17T10:30:53Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> <br /> 而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗：&quot;为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。&quot; --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 &quot;人民交通警察&quot;，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br /> <br /> 但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br /> <br /> 今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br /> <br /> 1989.9.13<br /> <br /> 请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br /> <br /> 但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 &quot;表演 &quot;过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 &quot;区级保护单位 &quot;的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br /> <br /> 今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> 请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 &quot;三十多年前 &quot;相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> <br /> '''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br /> 以九月寓言为背景'''<br /> <br /> 吕杰<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br /> 但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> <br /> 最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br /> <br /> <br /> ......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br /> <br /> Works Cited（不用翻）<br /> <br /> Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br /> <br /> Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br /> <br /> Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br /> <br /> Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br /> <br /> Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br /> <br /> Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.” <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ] <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br /> <br /> 那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> <br /> 这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br /> <br /> 我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> 张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br /> <br /> 在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br /> <br /> 1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br /> <br /> 与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br /> 从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> 在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> 在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br /> <br /> '''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br /> <br /> 这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br /> <br /> 这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——“杂文”。在他广义理解中，“杂文”包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> 王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在&quot;文化大革命&quot;后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br /> <br /> 朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br /> <br /> 1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 &quot;堕落 &quot;了，后来成了民族 &quot;汉奸&quot;。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> 本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=113559 2020-12-17T09:14:29Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br /> <br /> 这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> <br /> 而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗：&quot;为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。&quot; --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 &quot;人民交通警察&quot;，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br /> <br /> 从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br /> <br /> 但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br /> <br /> 今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br /> <br /> 1989.9.13<br /> <br /> 请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br /> <br /> 但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 &quot;表演 &quot;过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 &quot;区级保护单位 &quot;的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br /> <br /> 今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> 请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 &quot;三十多年前 &quot;相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> <br /> '''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br /> 以九月寓言为背景'''<br /> <br /> 吕杰<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br /> <br /> 作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br /> 但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。&quot;[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去&quot;（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 &quot;土地的崇拜者&quot;（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，&quot;土地 &quot;精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> <br /> 最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br /> <br /> <br /> ......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br /> <br /> Works Cited（不用翻）<br /> <br /> Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br /> <br /> Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br /> <br /> Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br /> <br /> Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br /> <br /> Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br /> <br /> Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.” <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ] <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br /> <br /> 那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> <br /> 这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br /> <br /> 我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br /> <br /> 然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：&quot;革命现实主义 &quot;的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> 张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> 即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br /> <br /> 在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br /> <br /> 1. 特征<br /> <br /> 1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br /> <br /> 与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的&quot;短篇小说&quot;的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br /> <br /> 当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> '''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br /> 从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 &quot;瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> 在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> 在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br /> <br /> '''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br /> <br /> 这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br /> <br /> 人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> 王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在&quot;文化大革命&quot;后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br /> <br /> 朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br /> <br /> 1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 周作人<br /> <br /> 民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 &quot;堕落 &quot;了，后来成了民族 &quot;汉奸&quot;。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> 本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=111401 2020-12-13T10:55:37Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chen Han 陈涵 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br /> <br /> Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> '''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br /> <br /> Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br /> <br /> '''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br /> <br /> 我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''作家角色的变化改变了散文的面貌'''<br /> <br /> 我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年之间，是清王朝覆灭和中华民国建立后的短短几年。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十出头。他们年龄相仿，处于相同的历史和文化氛围下，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的方式参与战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br /> <br /> Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br /> <br /> 因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br /> <br /> 因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br /> <br /> Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda, they continue to be colored by these at times very personal tensions that often make the essays more compelling reading in spite of themselves.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br /> <br /> The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br /> <br /> 社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br /> <br /> 由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 社会散文的发展和关注点<br /> <br /> 由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> '''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br /> <br /> In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism. <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> '''Yang Shuo'''<br /> <br /> Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br /> <br /> '''杨朔'''<br /> <br /> 杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br /> <br /> The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br /> <br /> 这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br /> <br /> 文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br /> <br /> 文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br /> <br /> In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad. <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br /> <br /> 特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br /> <br /> 我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br /> <br /> What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> '''Liu Baiyu'''<br /> <br /> Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s. <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [ ”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> . . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> &quot;The Brilliance of Spring,&quot;[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br /> <br /> &quot;春光灿烂&quot;（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 &quot;百花齐放&quot;）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 &quot;春光灿烂 &quot;一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;春天的辉煌&quot;，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 &quot;百花&quot;）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 &quot;春光灿烂 &quot;一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br /> <br /> 这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br /> <br /> 刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> '''Qin Mu'''<br /> <br /> Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br /> <br /> <br /> 秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br /> <br /> 秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br /> <br /> 一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br /> <br /> 在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br /> <br /> Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br /> <br /> 这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。(&quot;一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后&quot;。30)<br /> <br /> 秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 &quot;写什么？&quot;这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br /> <br /> 秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br /> <br /> But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br /> <br /> 秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br /> <br /> '''结论'''<br /> <br /> &quot;真实&quot;世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br /> <br /> ''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br /> <br /> ““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br /> <br /> '''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br /> <br /> Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br /> <br /> 这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br /> <br /> 审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 &quot;传统姿态&quot;，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br /> <br /> 对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 &quot;作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为&quot;。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br /> 采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 &quot;互动&quot;。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br /> <br /> In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br /> <br /> 此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br /> 总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br /> <br /> 总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br /> <br /> In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br /> <br /> 在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br /> <br /> 在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br /> --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br /> <br /> In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br /> <br /> Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br /> <br /> 传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> <br /> Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br /> <br /> Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br /> <br /> “Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> [s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br /> <br /> Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br /> <br /> Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> [t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br /> <br /> 郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br /> <br /> 在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> '''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br /> <br /> Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br /> <br /> It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> '''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br /> <br /> 与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br /> <br /> 需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> '“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br /> <br /> 遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br /> <br /> 重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br /> <br /> Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals. <br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br /> <br /> The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br /> <br /> 朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br /> <br /> 文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br /> <br /> 文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br /> <br /> Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> <br /> The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br /> <br /> 歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br /> <br /> Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br /> <br /> 他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，&quot;仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉&quot;。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br /> <br /> '''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br /> <br /> 不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，&quot;如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去&quot;。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br /> <br /> '''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br /> <br /> 不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br /> <br /> The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br /> <br /> 郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br /> <br /> 在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br /> <br /> 出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br /> <br /> 在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br /> <br /> 渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br /> <br /> 在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br /> <br /> 在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br /> 在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br /> --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br /> <br /> 在这首诗中，一个突出的传统形象是这个忠诚的官员，他假装疯狂（佯狂）地说出了未被注意的真理。这里，一个众所众知的传统手势被嵌入到文本中的文本中。然而，在做这个手势之前，他这一次再次被叫醒于的船夫终止了。<br /> Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> 很明显，于对他周围的看法改变了。在入睡之前，他看见连绵的青山环绕清澈的河流，沙洲上百花盛开，总之就是一幅祥和的如画风景。然而，当船接近钓台时，周围的山水画已经不知不觉间改变了。<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br /> <br /> Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br /> <br /> The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br /> <br /> On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br /> <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility. <br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br /> <br /> After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br /> <br /> 这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br /> <br /> 在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br /> <br /> 在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> '''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br /> <br /> By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br /> <br /> Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br /> <br /> When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br /> <br /> 然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br /> <br /> 当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br /> <br /> It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br /> <br /> 文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br /> <br /> 在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br /> Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br /> 她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br /> <br /> Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br /> <br /> 与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br /> <br /> By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br /> <br /> 朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br /> <br /> 通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br /> <br /> 五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> '''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br /> <br /> ''Wang Ban''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br /> <br /> '''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br /> <br /> ''王班''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br /> <br /> ''王班''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br /> <br /> ''王班''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction. <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br /> <br /> '''The Essay and the Novel'''<br /> <br /> The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br /> <br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br /> <br /> Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> <br /> 诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br /> 批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56). <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br /> <br /> The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br /> <br /> 换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br /> <br /> 在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> <br /> It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br /> <br /> 关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，&quot;在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失&quot;（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br /> <br /> Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br /> <br /> 普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br /> 然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br /> 然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br /> <br /> 脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> 失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 &quot;失控 &quot;一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br /> <br /> For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br /> <br /> '''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br /> <br /> The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br /> <br /> While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br /> <br /> 为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br /> <br /> 当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br /> <br /> 虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br /> <br /> As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br /> <br /> Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br /> <br /> In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br /> <br /> '''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br /> <br /> Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br /> “在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br /> 王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ----<br /> <br /> 在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br /> “在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br /> 王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br /> <br /> This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br /> <br /> 这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br /> <br /> 关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br /> <br /> 更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br /> <br /> '''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br /> <br /> Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br /> <br /> 这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br /> <br /> '''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br /> <br /> 王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> ''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> 《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br /> <br /> Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br /> <br /> 评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br /> 评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br /> <br /> 这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> “Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br /> <br /> “许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> “许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br /> <br /> 从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br /> <br /> The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br /> <br /> 虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br /> <br /> 本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 &quot;区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br /> <br /> The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br /> <br /> See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br /> <br /> Adorno, 3-23.<br /> 散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br /> 放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br /> 参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br /> <br /> 阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br /> <br /> 探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br /> --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br /> <br /> 比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br /> <br /> 进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br /> <br /> The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br /> 叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br /> <br /> 生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br /> <br /> The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br /> <br /> 儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> '''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br /> '''<br /> <br /> ''Mary Scoggin''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br /> <br /> 拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br /> <br /> 玛丽·斯高格<br /> <br /> 文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br /> <br /> In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br /> <br /> 杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br /> <br /> 在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着&quot;杂文&quot;。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 &quot;匕首和长矛 &quot;流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br /> 在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，&quot;杂文&quot;[字面意思是 &quot;杂文&quot;，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 &quot;中国性&quot;的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br /> 在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br /> <br /> In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br /> <br /> 鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 &quot;tsa-wen &quot;这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br /> <br /> 在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 &quot;tsa-wen &quot;这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br /> <br /> 在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br /> In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br /> <br /> Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br /> 但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br /> 虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br /> --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br /> <br /> So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br /> <br /> 从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br /> <br /> 那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br /> <br /> 那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br /> <br /> Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br /> <br /> 在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br /> 下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br /> <br /> 下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br /> <br /> 杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br /> ''<br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br /> So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br /> ''<br /> <br /> <br /> 一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br /> 一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br /> <br /> 像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br /> <br /> 就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> “Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br /> <br /> The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br /> <br /> 在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br /> <br /> A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br /> <br /> 第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br /> <br /> 第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br /> <br /> A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br /> <br /> 例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br /> <br /> 第三个层次，我称之为 &quot;索引性反讽&quot;，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 &quot;文学与百姓生活&quot;）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 &quot;文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 &quot;的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 &quot;全民办报（出版）&quot;的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br /> <br /> 第三层次，我称之为 &quot;索引性反讽&quot;，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> ''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br /> <br /> In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br /> <br /> <br /> “杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br /> 作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br /> <br /> 作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了&quot;耶利米德&quot;的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> '''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> 受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br /> <br /> 我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br /> <br /> 此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br /> 三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br /> <br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br /> <br /> 沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br /> 1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br /> <br /> 仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br /> <br /> Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br /> <br /> 在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br /> <br /> 实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br /> <br /> She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br /> It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br /> <br /> 因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br /> <br /> 她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太&quot;那样&quot;了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br /> 这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br /> <br /> In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br /> <br /> 当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合&quot;。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 &quot;叛乱 &quot;。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。&quot; 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、&quot;今天 &quot;和不顾一切的 &quot;寸土寸金 &quot;联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> '''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br /> <br /> It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br /> <br /> 一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br /> 那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 &quot;丑陋 &quot;的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，&quot;骡子 &quot;文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br /> <br /> ''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.) <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br /> 尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie &quot;bad literature&quot; directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br /> <br /> 1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br /> <br /> 2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br /> <br /> 3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br /> <br /> 4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br /> <br /> 显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br /> 1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br /> 2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br /> 3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br /> 4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br /> 1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br /> 2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br /> 3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br /> 4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br /> <br /> 有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在&quot; 杂文&quot;中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br /> <br /> Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br /> <br /> 文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br /> <br /> 在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> ''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br /> <br /> It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85). <br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br /> <br /> 这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，&quot;无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧&quot;。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 &quot;劣质文学 &quot;的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> ''Tone in Historical Context''<br /> <br /> As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry.<br /> <br /> 历史背景下的音调<br /> <br /> 为了证明这是情态修辞启发了扎文这一体裁的产生，我在这篇文章的结尾简要介绍了音调在历史中的表现。音调的概念（也是人们讨论的“调”，“音”，“韵”）最终源于音乐中的文字，这很关键，而且这也经常是中文潜台词的一部分。即使它作为一个隐喻，在应用于中文书写时，它必须消除声音的声学品质，但语气仍与声音中或类似声音的事物保持联系，强调客观，口头，非正式和情感方面的品质，而这并不是声音的一部分。理性的阐释过程，这就是杂文的“诗”。音调在围绕和组成写作的众多社交活动中发挥着作用。它出现在音乐人物中，成为最有影响力的文学和诗歌理论中的中心隐喻。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:32, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br /> <br /> The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br /> <br /> 例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br /> <br /> 情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 &quot;音&quot;。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=111380 2020-12-13T10:28:16Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br /> <br /> Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> '''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br /> <br /> Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br /> <br /> '''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br /> <br /> 我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br /> <br /> Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br /> <br /> 因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br /> <br /> 因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br /> <br /> Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda, they continue to be colored by these at times very personal tensions that often make the essays more compelling reading in spite of themselves.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br /> <br /> The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br /> <br /> 社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br /> <br /> 由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 社会散文的发展和关注点<br /> <br /> 由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> '''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br /> <br /> In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism. <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> '''Yang Shuo'''<br /> <br /> Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br /> <br /> '''杨朔'''<br /> <br /> 杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br /> <br /> The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br /> <br /> 这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br /> <br /> 文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br /> <br /> 文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br /> <br /> In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad. <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br /> <br /> 特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br /> <br /> 我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br /> <br /> What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> '''Liu Baiyu'''<br /> <br /> Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s. <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [ ”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> . . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> &quot;The Brilliance of Spring,&quot;[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br /> <br /> &quot;春光灿烂&quot;（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 &quot;百花齐放&quot;）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 &quot;春光灿烂 &quot;一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;春天的辉煌&quot;，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 &quot;百花&quot;）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 &quot;春光灿烂 &quot;一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br /> <br /> 这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br /> <br /> 刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> '''Qin Mu'''<br /> <br /> Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br /> <br /> <br /> 秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br /> <br /> 秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br /> <br /> 一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br /> <br /> 在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br /> <br /> Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br /> <br /> 这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。(&quot;一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后&quot;。30)<br /> <br /> 秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 &quot;写什么？&quot;这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br /> <br /> 秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br /> <br /> But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br /> <br /> 秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br /> <br /> '''结论'''<br /> <br /> &quot;真实&quot;世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br /> <br /> 中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br /> <br /> ''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br /> <br /> ““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br /> <br /> '''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br /> <br /> Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br /> <br /> 这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br /> <br /> 审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 &quot;传统姿态&quot;，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br /> <br /> 对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 &quot;作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为&quot;。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br /> 采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 &quot;互动&quot;。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> 采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br /> <br /> In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br /> <br /> 此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br /> 总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br /> <br /> 总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br /> <br /> In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br /> <br /> 在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br /> <br /> 在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br /> --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br /> <br /> In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br /> <br /> Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br /> <br /> 传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> <br /> Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br /> <br /> Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br /> <br /> “Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> [s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br /> <br /> Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br /> <br /> Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> [t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br /> <br /> 郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br /> <br /> 在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> '''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br /> <br /> Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br /> <br /> It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> '''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br /> <br /> 与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br /> <br /> 需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> '“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br /> <br /> 遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br /> <br /> 重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br /> <br /> Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals. <br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br /> <br /> The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br /> <br /> 朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br /> <br /> 文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br /> <br /> 文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br /> <br /> Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> <br /> The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br /> <br /> 歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br /> <br /> Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br /> <br /> 他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，&quot;仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉&quot;。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br /> <br /> '''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br /> <br /> 不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，&quot;如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去&quot;。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br /> <br /> '''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br /> <br /> 不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br /> <br /> The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br /> <br /> 郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br /> <br /> 在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br /> <br /> 出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br /> <br /> 在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br /> <br /> 渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br /> <br /> 在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br /> <br /> 在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br /> 在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br /> --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br /> <br /> Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br /> <br /> Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br /> <br /> The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br /> <br /> On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br /> <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility. <br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br /> <br /> After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br /> <br /> 这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br /> <br /> 在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br /> <br /> 在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> '''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br /> <br /> By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br /> <br /> Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br /> <br /> When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br /> <br /> 然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br /> <br /> 当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br /> <br /> It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br /> <br /> 文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br /> <br /> 在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br /> Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br /> 她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br /> <br /> Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br /> <br /> 与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br /> <br /> By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br /> <br /> 朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br /> <br /> 通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br /> <br /> 五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> '''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br /> <br /> ''Wang Ban''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br /> <br /> '''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br /> <br /> ''王班''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br /> <br /> ''王班''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br /> <br /> ''王班''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction. <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br /> <br /> '''The Essay and the Novel'''<br /> <br /> The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br /> <br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br /> <br /> Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> <br /> 诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br /> 批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56). <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br /> <br /> The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br /> <br /> 换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br /> <br /> 在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> <br /> It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br /> <br /> 关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，&quot;在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失&quot;（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br /> <br /> Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br /> <br /> 普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br /> 然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br /> 然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br /> <br /> 脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> 失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 &quot;失控 &quot;一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br /> <br /> For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br /> <br /> '''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br /> <br /> The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br /> <br /> While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br /> <br /> 为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br /> <br /> 当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br /> <br /> 虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br /> <br /> As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br /> <br /> Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br /> <br /> In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br /> <br /> '''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br /> <br /> Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br /> “在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br /> 王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ----<br /> <br /> 在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br /> “在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br /> 王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br /> <br /> This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br /> <br /> 这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br /> <br /> 关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br /> <br /> 更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br /> <br /> '''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br /> <br /> Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br /> <br /> 这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br /> <br /> '''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br /> <br /> 王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> ''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> 《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br /> <br /> Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br /> <br /> 评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br /> 评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br /> <br /> 这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> “Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br /> <br /> “许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> “许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br /> <br /> 从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br /> <br /> The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br /> <br /> 虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br /> <br /> 本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 &quot;区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br /> <br /> The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br /> <br /> See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br /> <br /> Adorno, 3-23.<br /> 散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br /> 放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br /> 参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br /> <br /> 阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br /> <br /> 探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br /> --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br /> <br /> 比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br /> <br /> 进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br /> <br /> The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br /> 叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br /> <br /> 生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br /> <br /> The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br /> <br /> 儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> '''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br /> '''<br /> <br /> ''Mary Scoggin''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br /> <br /> 拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br /> <br /> 玛丽·斯高格<br /> <br /> 文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br /> <br /> In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br /> <br /> 杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br /> <br /> 在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着&quot;杂文&quot;。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 &quot;匕首和长矛 &quot;流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br /> 在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，&quot;杂文&quot;[字面意思是 &quot;杂文&quot;，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 &quot;中国性&quot;的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br /> 在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br /> <br /> In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br /> <br /> 鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 &quot;tsa-wen &quot;这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br /> <br /> 在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 &quot;tsa-wen &quot;这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br /> <br /> 在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br /> In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br /> <br /> Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br /> 但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br /> 虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br /> --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br /> <br /> So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br /> <br /> 从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br /> <br /> 那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br /> <br /> 那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br /> <br /> Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br /> <br /> 在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br /> 下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br /> <br /> 下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br /> <br /> 杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br /> ''<br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br /> So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br /> ''<br /> <br /> <br /> 一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br /> 一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br /> <br /> 像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br /> <br /> 就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> “Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br /> <br /> The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br /> <br /> 在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br /> <br /> A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br /> <br /> 第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br /> <br /> 第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br /> <br /> A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br /> <br /> 例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br /> <br /> 第三个层次，我称之为 &quot;索引性反讽&quot;，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 &quot;文学与百姓生活&quot;）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 &quot;文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 &quot;的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 &quot;全民办报（出版）&quot;的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br /> <br /> 第三层次，我称之为 &quot;索引性反讽&quot;，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> ''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br /> <br /> In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br /> <br /> <br /> “杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br /> <br /> “呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br /> 作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br /> <br /> 作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了&quot;耶利米德&quot;的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> '''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> 受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br /> <br /> 我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br /> <br /> 此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br /> 三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br /> <br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br /> <br /> 沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br /> 1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br /> <br /> 仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br /> <br /> Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br /> <br /> 在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br /> <br /> 实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br /> <br /> She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br /> It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br /> <br /> 因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br /> <br /> 她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太&quot;那样&quot;了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br /> 这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br /> <br /> In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br /> <br /> 当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合&quot;。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 &quot;叛乱 &quot;。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。&quot; 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、&quot;今天 &quot;和不顾一切的 &quot;寸土寸金 &quot;联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> '''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br /> <br /> It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br /> <br /> 一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br /> 那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 &quot;丑陋 &quot;的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，&quot;骡子 &quot;文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br /> <br /> ''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.) <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br /> 尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie &quot;bad literature&quot; directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br /> <br /> 1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br /> <br /> 2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br /> <br /> 3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br /> <br /> 4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br /> <br /> 显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br /> 1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br /> 2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br /> 3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br /> 4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br /> 1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br /> 2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br /> 3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br /> 4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br /> <br /> 有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在&quot; 杂文&quot;中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br /> <br /> Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br /> <br /> 文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br /> <br /> 在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> ''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br /> <br /> It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85). <br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br /> <br /> 这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，&quot;无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧&quot;。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 &quot;劣质文学 &quot;的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> ''Tone in Historical Context''<br /> <br /> As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry. <br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br /> <br /> The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br /> <br /> 例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br /> <br /> 情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 &quot;音&quot;。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=111302 2020-12-13T09:38:13Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* 4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of Nida’s related papers from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了广泛中国翻译学者的关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译领域所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, etc. In his research, he has proposed such far-reaching translation theories as “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been of far-reaching influences in the western translation.<br /> Chinese translation has always focused on practice and lacks systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000:3) After Yan Fu proposed his distinguished theory “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, it has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, left In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, with Tan Zaixi and Lao Long as the representatives. Nida's theory was introduced to China in the 1980s, and was extensively studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, and translation scholars, including Tan Zaixi, Lao Long and others, compiled his works and introduced his translation theory to China. It is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defines it as the &quot;Nada Phenomenon&quot;.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, a national-level core academic journal, is sponsored by the Compilation and Research Center of the China Foreign Language Bureau and the China Translators Association, as well as the conference journal of the China Translators Association, under the supervision of the Foreign Language Publication and Distribution Bureau of China. It is the window for translation workers to exchange translation research and translation practice experience, the place for academic debate. Chinese translation scholars carry out translation research and academic communication through publishing papers, and the journal sets up columns such as translation research, translation theory and technique, etc., to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, and is an excellent research object to study the dynamics of the Chinese translation industry.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida's theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida's translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> 1.Eugene Nida and His Translation theories<br /> <br /> 2.The Translation Theories of Eugene Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1 Studies on Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1.1 Numbers of Papers, Books and Seminars on the Translation of Nida<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 Focuses of the Studies on Nida's Translation Theories<br /> <br /> 2.2 The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Theorists<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The attitudes Towards Nida's Translation Theories in China<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Transformations of Theorists in China <br /> <br /> 3. The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Translation development<br /> <br /> 3.1 The positive influences<br /> <br /> 3.2 The problems<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Acknowledgements===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==An analysis of main factors influencing the choice of translation strategies, the example of Hongloumeng 解帆 Xie Fan==<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper combed the 40 years of reform and opening-up in China the development course of interpreting research, introduces its experienced four stages: in the late 1970 s to 80 s &quot;bud&quot;, &quot;initial development&quot; of the 1990 s, the first decade of the 21st century &quot;new period&quot;, the second decade of the 21st century in the &quot;development&quot;. Finally, the author makes a review and analysis of the achievements and main performances of Chinese interpretation studies and comments on the current development status and future prospects of Chinese interpretation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文简要梳理改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，介绍其所经历的四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”。并回顾分析中国口译研究的成就和主要表现，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.The development and overview of The study of Interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> 2.1 The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research<br /> <br /> 2.1.1<br /> <br /> 2.1.2<br /> <br /> 2.1.3<br /> <br /> 2.1.4<br /> <br /> 2.2 Representative achievements in The study of Interpretation in China<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation of domestic interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===4.The development trend, characteristics and prospect of Chinese interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed. This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication. By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory. &quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10)) (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. 宁波教育学院学报[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br /> <br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” (Catford, 1965) And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” (Catford, 1965) From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” (Nida, 1982) He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” (Catford, 1965) He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence. <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form. (Catford, 1965) The later refers to that any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language. (Catford, 1965) He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” (Catford, 1965) There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text. <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida, 1982) To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” (Catford, 1965) And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” (Catford, 1965) This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” (Catford, 1965) In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” (Nida, 1982) Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage.<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> <br /> Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> No x in Nixon.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> 上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> 知者不言, 言者不知。<br /> 信言不美, 美言不信。<br /> 善者不辩, 辩者不善。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”. Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．<br /> <br /> Example 12：<br /> The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,<br /> <br /> They lowing herd wind slowly，o'er the lea，<br /> <br /> The ploughman homeward plods his weary way，<br /> <br /> And leaves the world to darkness and to me.<br /> <br /> From these examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 13:<br /> Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> Have something at one’ s finger-ends 了如指掌<br /> <br /> Like father, like son 有其父, 必有其子<br /> <br /> Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> Seeing is believing 眼见为实<br /> <br /> Kill two birds with one stone 一石二鸟<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 14:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。<br /> <br /> Example 15：<br /> 叶公好龙<br /> Lord Sheh' s love of dragons (Lord Sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them. But when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightened out of his wits.)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 16:<br /> Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> [2]谭载喜, 1999, 《新编奈达论翻译》［M］。北京：中国对外翻译出版公司。<br /> <br /> [3]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [4]Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning==<br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies==<br /> ==罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观==<br /> 摘要：自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> Key words: Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> Abstract: “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As well all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator’s thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> Introduction: There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida’s “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes’ “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell’s “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. Here comes another question: What is the main focus of translation? Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called “Language and Translation” that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? This is a question which attracts many translation scholars’ attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What’s worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell’s translation process model a special and valuable one.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information, but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.<br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.<br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute.<br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. (Liu Junping2009,140) Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. (Eugene Nida 1964) “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text.<br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration.<br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues.<br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’ s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation.<br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination.<br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”.<br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.<br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. (Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form.<br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned.<br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tanzaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1] Catford, J.C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> <br /> [2]姜丽.奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较[J].文教资料,2010(05):44-46.<br /> <br /> [3] Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London: Routledge, 200[…]<br /> <br /> [4]穆雷.卡特福德论翻译和教学[J].中国翻译. 1990(05).<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, Eugene. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6]孙佳.奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨[J].海外英语,2017(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> [7]孙晓曈.卡特福德翻译理论综述[J].读书文摘,2016(08):107.<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;. (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Xu Yuanchong's Translation Theories - 杨逸 Yang Yi, student no.==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translate poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. So this paper will be divided in three parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories: his principle of three beauties, his principle of three transformations and his principle of three purposes.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong ; principle of three beauties ; principle of three transformations ; principle of three purposes<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。因此本论文主要将分为三部分，结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论：“三美论”,“三化论”和“三之论”。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Principle of Three Beauties===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Transformations===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Purposes===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. 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TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> <br /> ==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Translation and Translation Study====<br /> <br /> In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue &quot;since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary&quot; was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br /> <br /> A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br /> <br /> Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br /> <br /> Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br /> <br /> Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br /> <br /> Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br /> <br /> Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br /> <br /> Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br /> <br /> Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br /> <br /> ===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br /> <br /> 1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br /> <br /> At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br /> The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations &quot;as a translator&quot; and &quot;as a speaker&quot;. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation &quot;as a translator&quot; refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation &quot;as a speaker&quot; refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br /> <br /> Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of &quot;literary untranslatability&quot;, in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br /> At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> <br /> 3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br /> <br /> The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to &quot;trophies&quot; of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br /> Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br /> <br /> 4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br /> <br /> Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br /> Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> 5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br /> <br /> Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called &quot;the change of expression&quot;; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br /> Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br /> Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br /> <br /> 1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br /> <br /> The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of &quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;, believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br /> <br /> Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public&quot;, believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br /> <br /> The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of &quot;beat foreigners by learning from their advantages&quot;. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br /> <br /> The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward &quot;good translation&quot; and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br /> <br /> 3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br /> <br /> The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot;, that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br /> <br /> 4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br /> <br /> During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br /> <br /> ====Similarities and Differences====<br /> <br /> By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br /> <br /> First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br /> <br /> Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of &quot;universal application&quot;. For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br /> <br /> The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br /> <br /> First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> Secondly, issues relating to &quot;faithfulness&quot; have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of &quot;the translation must be faithful to the original&quot;, various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the &quot;five elements of translation&quot;; Tytler put forward &quot;three principles of translation&quot;; Dao An proposed &quot;&quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of &quot;Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br /> ====Domestication and Doreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br /> <br /> Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br /> <br /> Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br /> <br /> This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br /> <br /> ====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, &quot;three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that &quot;it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as &quot;faithfulness&quot;. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br /> <br /> Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Catford, J. C. (1965). 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''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张瑜 Zhang Yu &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Lu Xun, as China’s renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;. At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br /> <br /> ===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br /> <br /> ====Purpose of Translation====<br /> From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br /> <br /> For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the &quot;guide of future revolutions&quot;. In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that &quot;it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties&quot; (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring &quot;fire and light&quot; for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br /> <br /> For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that &quot;my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290).&quot; It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br /> <br /> About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br /> The concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that &quot;it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle&quot; (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that &quot;the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be &quot;faithful&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;. Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177).&quot; Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br /> <br /> In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. &quot;Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286).&quot; On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that &quot;hard translation&quot; was just &quot;rigid translation&quot;. In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on &quot;hard translation&quot; from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br /> <br /> ====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br /> In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the &quot;exoticness&quot; and &quot;foreignness&quot; of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that &quot;every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression&quot; (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;. His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot; emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;, Zhao Jingshen translated the &quot;Milky Way&quot; into &quot;牛奶路&quot; instead of &quot;银河&quot;. This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br /> <br /> There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that &quot;in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380).&quot; Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that &quot;European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256).&quot; Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that &quot;the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)&quot; Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, although the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br /> <br /> ====Retranslation====<br /> Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that &quot;I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303).&quot; In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br /> <br /> The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Criticism====<br /> As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that &quot;the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306).&quot; Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism &quot;undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field&quot; (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br /> <br /> ===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;, and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br /> <br /> ====Philosophy of &quot;Intermediate&quot;====<br /> In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the &quot;gold mean&quot; in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Language=====<br /> In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that &quot;the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228).&quot; It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br /> In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, &quot;''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152).&quot; Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the &quot;intermedium&quot; to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the &quot;intermediate&quot; for readers and late translators for reference.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br /> <br /> ====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br /> Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br /> <br /> In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br /> <br /> In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that &quot;''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104).&quot; It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br /> <br /> In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of &quot;intermediate&quot; to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br /> *吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br /> *李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's &quot;Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br /> *刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br /> *黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br /> *Huang Xiaojun. &quot;The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization&quot;[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br /> *Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. &quot;The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture&quot;[鲁迅的 &quot;硬译 &quot;理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br /> *Xu Lan. &quot;On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory&quot;[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br /> ===2 Eco-translatology===<br /> ===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br /> Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as &quot;the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment&quot;.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br /> Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br /> ===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br /> In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br /> What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br /> What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br /> ===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br /> Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br /> However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere &quot;servant&quot; of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br /> Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br /> As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br /> ===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br /> ===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br /> After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br /> Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br /> Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br /> Flexibility.<br /> Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br /> ===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br /> Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death.<br /> ===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br /> After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br /> 我知道你天性善良，<br /> -I said,are you being a smartass? <br /> 我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br /> -Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br /> 只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br /> -Do my time... and get out. <br /> 服完刑...就走人<br /> Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br /> 他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br /> Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br /> 有个律师在多管闲事<br /> -Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br /> 对这种人不要心慈手软<br /> Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br /> <br /> ===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br /> China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br /> 有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br /> -Something more is going on here. <br /> 这背后有阴谋<br /> -This is desperation,Michael. <br /> 你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br /> -You're grabbing at straws. <br /> 是想抓救命稻草<br /> Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br /> 可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br /> Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, &quot;It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br /> An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br /> Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br /> 才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br /> 那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br /> -Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br /> 但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br /> Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br /> 跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br /> ===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br /> Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br /> Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br /> -Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br /> 也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br /> -You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br /> 你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br /> -Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br /> 就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br /> Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br /> 我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br /> Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his &quot;teammates&quot; at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br /> 把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br /> Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br /> 我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br /> -Is that the best you can do?<br /> 你就这么点能耐？<br /> -all: Shut up!<br /> 闭嘴!<br /> -Berwick: Not one more word!<br /> 谁也别出声！<br /> Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br /> ===4 Conclusion===<br /> From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br /> However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br /> <br /> [2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br /> <br /> [3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br /> <br /> [4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br /> <br /> [5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br /> <br /> [6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br /> <br /> [7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br /> <br /> [8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing Student No. 202070080650==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br /> <br /> 本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br /> <br /> This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br /> <br /> In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br /> <br /> Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> ===2 Literature Review===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br /> <br /> Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction &amp; Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br /> <br /> Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br /> <br /> Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br /> <br /> Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br /> <br /> According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br /> <br /> All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> ===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br /> <br /> In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br /> <br /> Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br /> <br /> The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br /> <br /> In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br /> <br /> Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br /> TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br /> <br /> It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br /> <br /> Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br /> <br /> Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br /> TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br /> <br /> The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br /> <br /> Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br /> <br /> From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br /> As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br /> <br /> Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br /> TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br /> <br /> This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br /> In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br /> <br /> Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br /> <br /> Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br /> TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br /> <br /> This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br /> <br /> From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br /> <br /> Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br /> TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br /> <br /> This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br /> <br /> For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br /> <br /> From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br /> <br /> Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br /> TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br /> <br /> The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br /> From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br /> <br /> ===4 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br /> [2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. 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Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br /> <br /> ===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br /> Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br /> From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br /> <br /> Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br /> Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's &quot;beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful &quot; and Confucius s &quot;speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning&quot;. Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the &quot;direct translation&quot; advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Dao An(314-385AD)<br /> Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br /> ① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br /> ② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br /> ③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br /> ④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br /> ⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br /> Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br /> He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br /> ① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br /> ② Translating the words of a saint.<br /> ③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br /> Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating &quot;heaven sees man, and man sees heaven&quot;(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that &quot; man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other&quot;(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br /> In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br /> Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, &quot; the language goes beyond the meaning&quot;(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, &quot;the thought surpasses the wording&quot; (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, &quot;the words should not harm the meaning&quot;(文不害意). A good translator should &quot;strive to preserve the original&quot;(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Sengrui(371-438AD)<br /> Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to &quot;rectify names&quot; (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Sengyou(445-518AD)<br /> Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br /> Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br /> ① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br /> ②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br /> ③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br /> ④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br /> ⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of &quot;wisdom&quot;(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br /> In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br /> After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br /> Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br /> Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br /> Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br /> Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br /> <br /> Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br /> Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br /> Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br /> <br /> Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br /> Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br /> <br /> Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br /> Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br /> Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br /> <br /> ===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br /> Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br /> <br /> Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br /> ①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br /> ②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br /> ③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br /> ④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br /> ⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br /> In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br /> <br /> (1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br /> ①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br /> ②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br /> ③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br /> ④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br /> ⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br /> ⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br /> ⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br /> (Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br /> <br /> (2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br /> ①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br /> ②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br /> ③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br /> ④The basic level in translation is word.<br /> ⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br /> Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br /> <br /> (1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br /> ①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br /> ②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br /> ③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br /> ④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> (2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br /> ①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br /> ②The translator must know SL and TL.<br /> ③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br /> ④The translator must use the common speech.<br /> ⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br /> 17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br /> work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br /> <br /> (1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br /> ① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br /> ② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian &quot;sense-for-sense&quot; view of translation.<br /> ③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br /> Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br /> Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the &quot;fire&quot; of the poem.<br /> In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> (2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br /> Tytler set up three basic principles:<br /> ①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br /> ②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br /> ③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of &quot;making known&quot; a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br /> In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br /> <br /> Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br /> <br /> (1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br /> ①Jakobson points out that &quot;there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units&quot;.<br /> ②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: &quot;Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics.&quot;<br /> ③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br /> ④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: &quot;Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey&quot;.<br /> ⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br /> <br /> (2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br /> Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid.&quot; translationese&quot;, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br /> <br /> (3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br /> Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br /> <br /> ===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br /> The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ===6. References===<br /> <br /> Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). &quot;二十世纪中国翻译史&quot; [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. &quot;西北大学出版社&quot; [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). &quot;中国译学理论史稿&quot; [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. &quot;上海外语教育出版社&quot; [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br /> <br /> Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). &quot;概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展&quot; [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. &quot;课程研究&quot; [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br /> <br /> Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). &quot;西方翻译理论通史述评&quot; [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. &quot;语言研究&quot; [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). &quot;从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展&quot; [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. &quot;大学英语&quot; [College English]. (08):117-119.<br /> <br /> Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). &quot;中西翻译简史述评&quot; [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. &quot;校园英语&quot; [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br /> <br /> Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). &quot;西方翻译简史之浅析&quot; [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. &quot;文史纵横&quot; [Literature and History].(18):123.<br /> <br /> Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). &quot;中西翻译理论对比&quot; [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. &quot;海外英语&quot; [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br /> <br /> Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). &quot;浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义&quot; [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. &quot;语言文化&quot; [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br /> <br /> Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). &quot;翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究&quot; [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. &quot;语言艺术研究&quot; [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林鑫 Lin Xin &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the 20th century, translation has been gradually examined and discussed more from a scientifical and linguistic perspective, yet in Bell's view, translation theorists have almost invariably made little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques in their practice. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is &quot;Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice&quot;. Liu Chongde, a well-known Chinese translator, critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, put forward the translation concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;closeness&quot;, compared the two translation methods of direct translation and Italian translation, and proposed the translatability of poetry. He compares the two methods of translation, direct translation and Italian translation, and proposes the translatability of poetry. The influence of Liu Chongde on the study of translation theory is comprehensive and profound. A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br /> ===题目===<br /> 贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> ====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br /> ====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br /> ===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br /> ====2.1 ====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Reference '''===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Nida's Theory and Jin Di's Theory 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> ===Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect===<br /> <br /> ===Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence===<br /> <br /> ===Difference Between Jin's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;漆凯 Qi Kai &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 翻译，笔译与口译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br /> <br /> This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2. Definition of Translation===<br /> Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br /> <br /> First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br /> <br /> Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br /> From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br /> Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, &quot;Xin&quot; means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. &quot;reach&quot; requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. &quot;elegance&quot; refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. &quot;elegance&quot; refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br /> <br /> Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's &quot;follow this purpose without literary decoration&quot;, the &quot;struggle for cultural quality&quot; in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the &quot;five losses and three difficult&quot; by Dao'an, &quot;rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source&quot; by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's &quot;five do not turn&quot;, Zanning's &quot;six examples&quot;, Ma Jianzhong's &quot;good translation&quot; and so on. After Yan Fu, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that &quot;it would rather be faithful than smooth&quot; and &quot;all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work.&quot; Lin Yutang put forward the standard of &quot;faithfulness, smoothness and beauty&quot;. Fu Lei's &quot;attaching importance to spirit but not form&quot;, &quot;harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance&quot;, Qian Zhongshu's &quot;transformation environment&quot;, Jin Shi's &quot;equivalence&quot; translation principle, Liu Zhongde's &quot;faith, reach, cut&quot; regiment, Zhang Jin's &quot;truth, goodness, beauty&quot;, and Xu Yuanchong summed up the &quot;beauty of meaning, sound, form&quot; and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br /> <br /> Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot; has always been the &quot;golden rule&quot; in the field of translation. The translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot; is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of &quot;literal translation and free translation&quot; to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of &quot;the unity of man and nature&quot;, &quot;the subject is integrated into the object&quot;, and it is a &quot;incidental discussion&quot; of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br /> <br /> Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot;, and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br /> According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as &quot;translation as a commentator&quot; put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's &quot;completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language&quot;, the &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot; and the thought circle of &quot;response&quot; and &quot;domestication&quot; advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's &quot;equivalent translation&quot;, PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory &quot;understanding is translation&quot; advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's &quot;translation is rewriting&quot; Hermans's &quot;the text is manipulated by the translator&quot; and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of &quot;domestication&quot;, and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br /> <br /> ===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br /> Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In &quot;language and Culture: context in Translation&quot;, Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br /> <br /> Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br /> <br /> ===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br /> As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br /> First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to &quot;understand&quot;-&quot;discourse&quot;, and then &quot;re-express&quot;, the &quot;discourse&quot; (Marianne Lederer, in another language. 2011). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators. <br /> <br /> Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. These similarities can be simply summarized as &quot;three looks&quot;: to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br /> (1) Differences in measurement criteria<br /> As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although the translation theoretical circles have not formed a unified opinion on translation standards, especially after the &quot;cultural turn&quot;, the translation theoretical circles are even more contentious, the mainstream translation standards for evaluating the quality of translation in China are still based on faithfulness and fluency, which are in line with the standards of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; proposed by Yan Fu. This is in line with the standard of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; proposed by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the original text in terms of content, form, style, and style as far as possible, and to be smooth and fluent. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the merits of interpretation. According to French interpreting expert Céles Covic's theory, the interpretation of the interpreters is not only good but also good. According to the interpretation theory of French interpretation expert Celes Kovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, the purpose of which is to convey the meaning, and the standard is to achieve the meaning and fluency. Interpretation expert Li Yuran proposes the standard of interpretation as accuracy, fluency and speed. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties; fluency means that the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, so that people can easily understand; speed is due to the instantaneous nature of interpretation, and its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to make<br /> Quickness is due to the immediate nature of interpretation, and the time constraint itself requires the interpreter to respond quickly. Interpretation scholar Zhong Weihe advocates that interpretation should follow the principles of fidelity and timeliness. Fidelity means that the translated language must be faithful to the content of the original language and the emotional color of the speech in a particular situation; timeliness means that the communication is timely. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as that of translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation result should be accurate, and the interpreter should not speculate on the content of the original text according to his or her own understanding; the recipient of the translation result should be the target, and the expression form of the translation result must conform to the language habits of the recipient in order to facilitate his or her understanding; in addition, the interpreter needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation when translating.<br /> <br /> (2) The difference of translation process<br /> The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is a... It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Ren, 2009:6). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to &quot;use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality&quot; (Wu Bing, 1995). Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete. Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.<br /> <br /> (3) Different requirements for interpreters<br /> Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br /> <br /> ①Psychological quality<br /> Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. According to Cao Jianxin (1997: 26), &quot;the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process.&quot; The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.<br /> <br /> ②Listening<br /> Interpreting is built on the basis of &quot;listening&quot; and relies on &quot;listening&quot;. To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br /> <br /> ③Memory and shorthand ability<br /> Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the &quot;absence factor&quot; of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Zhong Weihe, 2007: 31). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br /> <br /> ===7. References===<br /> <br /> *Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br /> <br /> *Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br /> <br /> *Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br /> <br /> *Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br /> <br /> *Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br /> <br /> *Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br /> <br /> *Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br /> <br /> *Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br /> <br /> *Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br /> <br /> *Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br /> <br /> *Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> *Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;郭露 Guo Lu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br /> <br /> === '''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> 翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br /> <br /> In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> ==='''Yan Fu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that &quot;there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;. Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Theory'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative &quot;f&quot; so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br /> <br /> (1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> (2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br /> <br /> Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br /> <br /> Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory'''<br /> <br /> Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br /> <br /> ==='''Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br /> <br /> Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br /> <br /> “The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Methods'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br /> <br /> (1) Omission<br /> <br /> In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> (2) Addition<br /> <br /> During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br /> <br /> 彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (3) Alteration<br /> <br /> Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br /> <br /> 日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br /> <br /> Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (4) Adaptation<br /> <br /> Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br /> <br /> 密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory'''<br /> <br /> During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br /> <br /> In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> * Charles Dickens. (2008). ''David Copperfield''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). 中国译学理论史稿 [''Draft of Chinese translation theory'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). 中国译学史 [''A History of Chinese Translation'']. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br /> <br /> * Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br /> <br /> * Ernest Hemingway. (2016). ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br /> <br /> * Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br /> <br /> * Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> * Huang Yuanshen. (2011). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> * Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). 中外翻译理论教程 [''Translation Theory: A Coursebook'']. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br /> <br /> * Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). 撒克逊劫后英雄略 [''Ivanhoe'']. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> * Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br /> <br /> * Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br /> <br /> * Walter Scott. (2009). ''Ivanhoe''. Signet Classics.<br /> <br /> * Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br /> <br /> * Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). 严复集 [''Yan Fu Ji'']. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br /> <br /> * Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br /> <br /> * Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br /> <br /> * Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> * Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> * Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br /> <br /> * Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). 中西翻译理论简明教程 [''A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories'']. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> * Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br /> <br /> ='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han==<br /> &lt;center&gt; Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br /> <br /> In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br /> <br /> In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br /> <br /> According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br /> <br /> The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br /> <br /> Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br /> <br /> In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br /> <br /> Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540 : The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in On the Establishment of Translation Academy (《拟设翻译书院议》): The translator is proficient in foreign languages ​​and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br /> <br /> It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br /> <br /> From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br /> <br /> ===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br /> <br /> By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br /> <br /> In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br /> <br /> In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br /> <br /> It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br /> <br /> Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s Evolution and Ethics, which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br /> <br /> Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. <br /> <br /> Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br /> <br /> From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br /> <br /> Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br /> <br /> The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. <br /> <br /> When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br /> <br /> When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br /> <br /> However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br /> <br /> In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the dao (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s dao of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br /> <br /> In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br /> <br /> ===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br /> Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br /> <br /> Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br /> <br /> Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br /> <br /> However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br /> <br /> The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> * Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br /> * Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br /> * Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot;] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br /> * Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br /> * Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&amp;Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&amp;Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> == Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representative of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida put forward the famous &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory and &quot;functional equivalence&quot; theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devoted himself to teaching, and put forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points, and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br /> ===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> ====Eugene Nida====<br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br /> At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br /> ======Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br /> Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics to carry out translation activities when there are translation problems. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communication of thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br /> <br /> ======Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br /> According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message (Tan Zaixi 1984,10)”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text.<br /> Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br /> At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br /> <br /> ====Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br /> <br /> The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are &quot;man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; and &quot;man proposals, God disposes.&quot; Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, &quot;heaven&quot; dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates &quot;天&quot; into &quot;heaven&quot;, which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of &quot;communicative translation&quot; strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> ====The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Translatability=====<br /> Nida believes that &quot;translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style &quot; (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: &quot;translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author.&quot; (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is &quot;Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. &quot; (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br /> In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br /> <br /> =====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br /> Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: &quot;a land of honey and milk&quot;, which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br /> <br /> =====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br /> Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of &quot;content first, form second&quot;. This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; into &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. In functional equivalence, Nida further defines &quot;information&quot;, stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> <br /> What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on &quot;functional equivalence&quot; and hence &quot;the highest level of equivalence&quot; and &quot;the lowest level of equivalence&quot; are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward &quot;correlative translation&quot; on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of &quot;relevance translation&quot; is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br /> <br /> ====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Different Definition of Translation=====<br /> Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: &quot;the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style&quot; (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: &quot;translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. &quot; (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes &quot;equivalence&quot;, &quot;information&quot;, &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, while Newmark focuses on &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;text&quot;. At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although &quot;information&quot; includes &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> On the contrary, the latter emphasizes &quot;textual meaning&quot;, which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that &quot;text-oriented theory&quot; is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot; at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Nature of Translation=====<br /> The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original &quot;translation is science&quot; into &quot;translation research is science&quot;. In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Theories=====<br /> The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br /> Nida puts forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br /> When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br /> <br /> =====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br /> Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the &quot;sacred status of the original author&quot;, and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that &quot;translation is communication&quot;. If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===My Views on Their Theories===<br /> Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> The principle of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence &quot;John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game&quot;, “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. &quot; &quot;Play the game&quot; means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to &quot;extract the essence&quot; and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1984<br /> *廖七一.当代西方翻译理论探索 [M].译林出版社，2000<br /> *刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社， 2009.9<br /> *方梦之. 中国译学大辞典[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2011<br /> *林敏煜.浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [J].文教资料 2008：61-62<br /> *崔建周，卢静.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [J]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 2006，19(3) ：106-108 <br /> *徐向晖.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨 [J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报 2010，9(1) ：88-89<br /> *杨山青，饶家林. 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用 [J]. 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报 2010（1）：41-42<br /> *胡爱萍. 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究 [J].铜陵学院学报 2014：81<br /> *王小丹. 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[J].陕西师范大学学报2009：131-131<br /> *纽马克. 翻译问题探讨[M]. 上海外语教育出版社，2001<br /> *Tam Jae-hee. [Nida on Translation] [M]. Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company] 1984<br /> *Liao Qiyi. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] [M]. [Translating Forest Press], 2000<br /> *Liu Junping. [Translation and translation] [M]. Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] 2009.9<br /> Fang Mengzhi. [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] [M]. Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press], 2011<br /> *Lin Min-yu. [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] [J]. [Journal of Translation and Education] 2008: 61-62<br /> *Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] [J]. [Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 2006, 19(3):106-108 <br /> *Xu Xianghui. [A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] [J]. [Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 2010, 9(1): 88-89<br /> *Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin. [The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] [J]. [Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 2010(1):41-42<br /> *Hu Aiping. [A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] [J]. [Journal of Tongling College] 2014: 81<br /> *Wang Xiaodan. [Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] [J]. [Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 2009, 131-132<br /> *Newmark. [Exploring Translation Issues] [M]. [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press], 2001<br /> *Eugene A. Nida. From One Language to Another [M]. Thomas Nelson Incorporated,1986<br /> *Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964<br /> *Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969<br /> *Peter·Newmark. About Translation [M]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd,1991 <br /> *Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation [M]. London: Prentice Hall International (UK), 1988<br /> <br /> ==A study on the division of western translation theories 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;刘柳 Liu Liu &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br /> <br /> ==='''Keywords'''===<br /> <br /> western translation theories,<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 西方翻译理论划分之研究<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 西方翻译理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅰ.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the &quot;three principles of translation&quot; by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, &quot;Cannibalism&quot;, and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of &quot;différance&quot; deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of &quot;pure language&quot; deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Translation in Ancient Times'''====<br /> <br /> The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero'''=====<br /> <br /> The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', &quot;...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus'''=====<br /> <br /> Heratius was deeply influenced by Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be &quot;sense for sense&quot;. At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that &quot;a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word&quot;. This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation.&quot;(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.3 St. Jerome'''=====<br /> <br /> St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.4 St. Augustine'''=====<br /> <br /> St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use &quot;simple&quot;, &quot;elegant&quot;, or &quot;sacred&quot; style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use &quot;simple&quot; style when translating enlightment texts, use &quot;elegant&quot; style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use &quot;sacred&quot; style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the &quot;semiotics theory&quot; of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the &quot;significatio&quot;, &quot;sonus&quot; and &quot;judgment&quot; in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.2.1 Manlius Boethius'''=====<br /> <br /> Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express &quot;truth without error&quot;, the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.2.2 Dante'''=====<br /> <br /> Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 Translation in Renaissance'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.3.1 Martin Luther'''=====<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, &quot;we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot; (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, &quot;let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German.&quot; (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.3.2 Etienne Dolet'''=====<br /> <br /> Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.1 John Dryden'''=====<br /> <br /> John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, &quot;only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's&quot;. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler'''=====<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get &quot;the same strong feeling&quot; (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are &quot;the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work&quot;, &quot;the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original&quot; and &quot;the translation should have all the ease of original composition&quot; became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.3 Matthw Arnold'''=====<br /> <br /> In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.4 Francis W. Newman'''=====<br /> <br /> Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view. Newman's viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher'''=====<br /> <br /> Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpretating and translation, his views on interpretating waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpretating is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpretating is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.6 Wilhelmvon Humboldt'''=====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.1 Federov'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.2 Roman Jakobson'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.3 John Catford'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.4 Eugene A. Nida'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.5 James Holmes'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.6 Lawrence Venuti'''=====<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅲ.Discussion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅳ.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈莎 Chen Sha &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper makes a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theory and J. C. Catford's translation theory from the perspective of their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding such concepts as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic school of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theory from different perspectives, and the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influence on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，并且同一个术语在两种译论中也被赋予了不同的含义，因此也对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握两种理论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br /> Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, they are based on different linguistic theories. <br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theory is mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformative-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha1.jpg]]<br /> <br /> In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida breaks through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br /> <br /> In summary, Nida breaks through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that through the transformation of deep structure between languages, the faithfulness to the source language can be guaranteed to the greatest extent. At the same time, as the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure, the smoothness of the target language can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu &amp; Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theory breaks through the formal constraints in translation and retains the content of the source language, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practice.<br /> <br /> In contrast, Catford's translation theory is mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language, and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt these two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from four levels, namely, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be simultaneously carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation at that level is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br /> <br /> In summary, Catford’s translation theory is based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theory in a selective way, which makes his translation theory innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday’s systematic linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br /> <br /> ====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br /> Nida's translation theory mainly serves the translation of The Bible, with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey &quot;the will of God” . (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> In Nida’s opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in his process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found for communication. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida's translation theory, Catford did not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focused on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture, and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, but this is also why Catford’s translation theory arouses suspicion of other scholars. Readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theory. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> ====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br /> Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br /> In Nida's translation theory, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information, which means that its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br /> <br /> Catford regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to raw materials, including phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theory, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages cannot be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theory different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> ====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br /> Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of language and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of hoe the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, the translator can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text or when the structure of the original text is cumbersome and difficult to understand. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br /> <br /> Catford believes that &quot;translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language.&quot; (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word &quot;text&quot;, but &quot;textual materials&quot;, because he believed that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon, and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist at the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theory seems to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br /> <br /> In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizng equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of the translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theory focuses on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br /> No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br /> <br /> In the book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida pointed that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called &quot;closest&quot; and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, the translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theory is concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted in the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br /> <br /> Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book A linguistic Theory of Translation, he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford used &quot;replacement&quot; to correspond to Nida's &quot;reproduction&quot;, just because he realized that different languages are different systems that could never be coincided with each other. As a result, there would never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br /> <br /> All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s view of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===4. Significance===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br /> Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> =====4.2 Influences in China=====<br /> In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. As soon as Nida’s translation theory was introduced, the research and citation of it achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theory were published on China Translation, the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theory were published on such core journals as Chinese Science and Technology Translation from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida's translation theory, Catford's translation theory on the contrry has not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theory were published on Chinese Science and Technology Translation from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha2.jpg]]<br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha3.jpg]]<br /> <br /> In summary, compared with Catford's translation theory, which is abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theory is more easily accepted and plays a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Limitations====<br /> Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theory obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of The Bible, and the specific purpose of The Bible to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> As soon as Catford's theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practice, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. “校园英语” [Campus English] 241.<br /> <br /> Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''文教资料'' [Cultural and Educational Materials] 44-46.<br /> <br /> Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. “国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics] 1-7.<br /> <br /> Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's &quot;Equivalence&quot; Translation Theory]. “哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute] 93-95.<br /> <br /> Shi Xishu &amp; Du Ping. 石锡书 &amp; 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theory]. “翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science] 69-71.<br /> <br /> Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. “重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University] 85-89.<br /> <br /> Catford, J. C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶Xu Mengdie ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student no.202020080657 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br /> This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br /> 本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> 1. Research Background<br /> <br /> With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). He distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br /> The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br /> <br /> 2. Research Method<br /> <br /> Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound,etc.<br /> <br /> Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br /> <br /> ===II.Literature Review===<br /> Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br /> <br /> [[File:A.png]]<br /> <br /> Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br /> <br /> [[File:8.png]]<br /> <br /> Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br /> <br /> As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br /> <br /> Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are &quot;Chinese new poetry&quot;, &quot;poem translation&quot;, &quot;the beauty of painting&quot; in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br /> <br /> ====III.Discussion====<br /> Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences. <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the &quot;order&quot; and &quot;benevolence&quot; mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc. (蒋洪新，2001). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name &quot;imagism&quot; for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br /> <br /> In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br /> <br /> ====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br /> <br /> 太阳辛苦了一天，<br /> 赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br /> 喜得满面通红，<br /> 一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br /> <br /> This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br /> <br /> ''&quot;这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。&quot; （《冬夜》评论）<br /> <br /> &quot;Don’t use such an expression as &quot;dim lands of peace.&quot; It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.&quot; (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br /> <br /> “落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”&quot;A wet leaf that clings to the threshold.&quot; <br /> <br /> This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here &quot;wet leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are two different images but the verb &quot;cling&quot; is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both &quot;fallen leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. &quot;Blue, blue is the grass about the river&quot;, &quot;White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door.&quot; There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words &quot;青青&quot; and &quot;皎皎&quot;, which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br /> <br /> Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br /> <br /> ====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Wen Yiduo, 1926). In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br /> <br /> Sea Fever<br /> by： John Masefield<br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br /> <br /> And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br /> <br /> And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br /> <br /> Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br /> <br /> And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br /> <br /> To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br /> <br /> And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br /> <br /> 还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br /> <br /> 海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br /> <br /> 是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br /> <br /> 再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br /> <br /> 走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br /> <br /> 我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br /> <br /> 临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。<br /> <br /> John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations &quot;a star to steer/ a clear call, etc.&quot; are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, &quot;I must go down to the seas again&quot;, which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br /> <br /> To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, &quot;I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,&quot; &quot;again&quot; this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and &quot;lonely sea and the sky &quot; was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom &quot;天涯海角&quot;. &quot;To steer&quot; this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-&quot;做她的向导&quot; to ensure the balance of translation.<br /> Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (诗歌节奏的研究). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br /> <br /> Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert&quot; (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br /> <br /> Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music&quot;. Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br /> <br /> ====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br /> <br /> Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br /> <br /> In a Station of the Metro<br /> The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br /> Petals on a wet, black bough.<br /> <br /> This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is &quot;word&quot;, which is distinct from &quot;syllable&quot; in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br /> Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be &quot;pure form&quot;. So he appealed to &quot;beauty of architecture&quot; and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br /> <br /> Thursday<br /> ——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br /> <br /> And if I loved you Wednesday, <br /> <br /> Well, what is that to you?<br /> <br /> I do not love you Thursday— <br /> <br /> So much is true. <br /> <br /> And why you come complaining <br /> <br /> Is more than I can see.<br /> <br /> I loved you Wednesday,<br /> <br /> —yes—but what Is that to me?<br /> <br /> 礼拜四<br /> <br /> 即使我礼拜三爱你，<br /> <br /> 你管它做什么？<br /> <br /> 礼拜四我并不爱你，<br /> <br /> 却一点也不错。<br /> <br /> 我真不懂，你何为还<br /> <br /> 找着我来纠缠。<br /> <br /> 礼拜三我爱你—对—<br /> <br /> 可是那与我又何干？<br /> <br /> This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, &quot;—yes—but what/Is that to me?&quot;, to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word &quot;—yes—&quot; into the verse before the last one, &quot;礼拜三我爱你—对—&quot; to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -&quot;And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see&quot;. To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, &quot;你何为还找着我来纠缠&quot; into two verses, &quot;你何为还/找着我来纠缠&quot;. Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added &quot;却&quot; to echo &quot;可是&quot; in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br /> In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br /> <br /> ====4.Conclusion====<br /> To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take &quot;order&quot; as &quot;balance&quot;. His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br /> Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br /> <br /> ===V.Reference===<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br /> <br /> Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br /> <br /> Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br /> <br /> Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br /> <br /> Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br /> <br /> Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br /> <br /> Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br /> <br /> Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br /> <br /> Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br /> <br /> Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem &quot;Reminicence of Chrysanthemum&quot;].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's &quot;I am a Cat&quot; with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br /> <br /> This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br /> <br /> Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this &quot;subjectivity&quot; and &quot;conceptualization&quot; and their closely related &quot;perspectives&quot; and &quot;perspectives&quot;. The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of &quot;cognitive narrative&quot; contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br /> <br /> Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The &quot;subject&quot; is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective&quot; is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the &quot;viewpoint&quot; (viewpoint). In other words, &quot;viewpoint&quot; is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br /> <br /> In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br /> <br /> Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br /> <br /> Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br /> <br /> Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br /> <br /> If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br /> <br /> If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being &quot;norms&quot; and &quot;purpose,&quot; which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br /> <br /> The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a &quot;cultural and ideological turn&quot; from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on &quot;translation as rewriting,&quot; &quot;translation of gender,&quot; &quot;postcolonial translation theory,&quot; &quot;(non)visibility of translation,&quot; and &quot;power networks of translation,&quot; among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on &quot;people,&quot; with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br /> <br /> On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The &quot;shift&quot; is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, &quot;conversion operations&quot; refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br /> <br /> Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an &quot;equivalent&quot; translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br /> <br /> In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br /> <br /> <br /> '''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br /> <br /> In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;objective grasping,&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;D mode.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;subjective grasping&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;I-mode&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br /> When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject &quot;conceptually splits&quot; itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br /> <br /> <br /> ⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br /> b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br /> c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br /> （深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br /> <br /> <br /> As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br /> I will now mention what Langacker calls the &quot;stage model&quot;. The &quot;stage model&quot; is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of &quot;speakers&quot;. According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the &quot;subject&quot; of the concept and the object of expression is the &quot;object&quot; of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is &quot;off-stage&quot;. From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is &quot;on-stage&quot;. A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the &quot;off-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the &quot;on-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br /> <br /> Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called &quot;I-mode&quot; (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is &quot;on-stage&quot; and is often viewed as &quot;situation-centered&quot; and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is &quot;direct experience&quot; and its expression is &quot;non-reporting&quot; in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the &quot;D-mode&quot; (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an &quot;off-stage&quot; and &quot;out-of-situation&quot; mode, so the perspective is literally &quot;extrinsic&quot; and &quot;external&quot; to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the &quot;person-centered&quot; view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is &quot;reportive&quot;. These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br /> <br /> The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or &quot;I-mode,&quot; which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called &quot;subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the &quot;D-mode&quot;, which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a &quot;separation of subject and guest,&quot; so to speak, against the former.<br /> <br /> The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br /> <br /> The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br /> The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br /> <br /> The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as &quot;pochan&quot; and &quot;shito&quot;, respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br /> <br /> In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br /> <br /> First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br /> <br /> 1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;On Stage”<br /> 4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. &quot;On Stage”<br /> <br /> ⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is &quot;On Stage”.)<br /> b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;On stage”.)<br /> b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br /> Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's &quot;The Old Man and the Sea&quot; and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br /> <br /> ⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br /> b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br /> <br /> ⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br /> b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br /> <br /> ⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br /> b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br /> <br /> ⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br /> b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br /> <br /> <br /> '''7. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of &quot;perspective&quot; and &quot;subjectivation,&quot; and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's &quot;cognitive typology&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography:'''<br /> <br /> [1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br /> <br /> [2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br /> <br /> [3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br /> <br /> [4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br /> <br /> [5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br /> <br /> [6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br /> <br /> [7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br /> <br /> [8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br /> <br /> [9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br /> <br /> [10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br /> <br /> ==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br /> '''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br /> '''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br /> '''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br /> <br /> '''1 Introduction'''<br /> Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br /> Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br /> Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br /> <br /> '''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br /> Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br /> '''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br /> '''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br /> On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br /> Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br /> '''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br /> '''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br /> Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br /> '''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br /> Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br /> '''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br /> There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br /> '''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br /> China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br /> '''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br /> The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br /> '''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br /> The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br /> '''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br /> The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br /> '''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br /> '''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br /> '''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br /> The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br /> '''5.2 Block Model'''<br /> The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br /> '''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br /> Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br /> '''5.4 Integration Model'''<br /> The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br /> '''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br /> When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br /> '''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br /> As the name implies, &quot;literal translation&quot; is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br /> The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br /> '''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br /> Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br /> In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br /> By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br /> '''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br /> There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br /> When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br /> '''7 Conclusion'''<br /> Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br /> In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> *Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br /> *Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br /> *Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br /> *Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br /> *Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br /> *Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br /> *Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br /> *陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br /> *胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br /> *景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br /> *金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br /> *李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br /> *廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br /> *宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br /> *汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br /> *郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=111292 2020-12-13T09:33:32Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of Nida’s related papers from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了广泛中国翻译学者的关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译领域所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, etc. In his research, he has proposed such far-reaching translation theories as “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been of far-reaching influences in the western translation.<br /> Chinese translation has always focused on practice and lacks systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000:3) After Yan Fu proposed his distinguished theory “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, it has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, left In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, with Tan Zaixi and Lao Long as the representatives. Nida's theory was introduced to China in the 1980s, and was extensively studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, and translation scholars, including Tan Zaixi, Lao Long and others, compiled his works and introduced his translation theory to China. It is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defines it as the &quot;Nada Phenomenon&quot;.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, a national-level core academic journal, is sponsored by the Compilation and Research Center of the China Foreign Language Bureau and the China Translators Association, as well as the conference journal of the China Translators Association, under the supervision of the Foreign Language Publication and Distribution Bureau of China. It is the window for translation workers to exchange translation research and translation practice experience, the place for academic debate. Chinese translation scholars carry out translation research and academic communication through publishing papers, and the journal sets up columns such as translation research, translation theory and technique, etc., to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, and is an excellent research object to study the dynamics of the Chinese translation industry.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida's theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida's translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> 1.Eugene Nida and His Translation theories<br /> <br /> 2.The Translation Theories of Eugene Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1 Studies on Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1.1 Numbers of Papers, Books and Seminars on the Translation of Nida<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 Focuses of the Studies on Nida's Translation Theories<br /> <br /> 2.2 The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Theorists<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The attitudes Towards Nida's Translation Theories in China<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Transformations of Theorists in China <br /> <br /> 3. The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Translation development<br /> <br /> 3.1 The positive influences<br /> <br /> 3.2 The problems<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Acknowledgements===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==An analysis of main factors influencing the choice of translation strategies, the example of Hongloumeng 解帆 Xie Fan==<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper combed the 40 years of reform and opening-up in China the development course of interpreting research, introduces its experienced four stages: in the late 1970 s to 80 s &quot;bud&quot;, &quot;initial development&quot; of the 1990 s, the first decade of the 21st century &quot;new period&quot;, the second decade of the 21st century in the &quot;development&quot;. Finally, the author makes a review and analysis of the achievements and main performances of Chinese interpretation studies and comments on the current development status and future prospects of Chinese interpretation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文简要梳理改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，介绍其所经历的四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”。并回顾分析中国口译研究的成就和主要表现，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.The development and overview of The study of Interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> 2.1 The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research<br /> <br /> 2.1.1<br /> <br /> 2.1.2<br /> <br /> 2.1.3<br /> <br /> 2.1.4<br /> <br /> 2.2 Representative achievements in The study of Interpretation in China<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation of domestic interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===4.The development trend, characteristics and prospect of Chinese interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed. This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication. By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory. &quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10)) (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. 宁波教育学院学报[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br /> <br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” (Catford, 1965) And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” (Catford, 1965) From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” (Nida, 1982) He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” (Catford, 1965) He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence. <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form. (Catford, 1965) The later refers to that any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language. (Catford, 1965) He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” (Catford, 1965) There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text. <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida, 1982) To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” (Catford, 1965) And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” (Catford, 1965) This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” (Catford, 1965) In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” (Nida, 1982) Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage.<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> <br /> Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> No x in Nixon.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> 上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> 知者不言, 言者不知。<br /> 信言不美, 美言不信。<br /> 善者不辩, 辩者不善。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”. Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．<br /> <br /> Example 12：<br /> The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,<br /> <br /> They lowing herd wind slowly，o'er the lea，<br /> <br /> The ploughman homeward plods his weary way，<br /> <br /> And leaves the world to darkness and to me.<br /> <br /> From these examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 13:<br /> Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> Have something at one’ s finger-ends 了如指掌<br /> <br /> Like father, like son 有其父, 必有其子<br /> <br /> Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> Seeing is believing 眼见为实<br /> <br /> Kill two birds with one stone 一石二鸟<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 14:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。<br /> <br /> Example 15：<br /> 叶公好龙<br /> Lord Sheh' s love of dragons (Lord Sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them. But when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightened out of his wits.)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 16:<br /> Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> [2]谭载喜, 1999, 《新编奈达论翻译》［M］。北京：中国对外翻译出版公司。<br /> <br /> [3]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [4]Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. 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''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning==<br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies==<br /> ==罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观==<br /> 摘要：自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> Key words: Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> Abstract: “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As well all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator’s thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> Introduction: There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida’s “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes’ “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell’s “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. Here comes another question: What is the main focus of translation? Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called “Language and Translation” that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? This is a question which attracts many translation scholars’ attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What’s worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell’s translation process model a special and valuable one.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information, but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.<br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.<br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute.<br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. (Liu Junping2009,140) Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. (Eugene Nida 1964) “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text.<br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration.<br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues.<br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’ s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation.<br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination.<br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”.<br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.<br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. (Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form.<br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned.<br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tanzaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1] Catford, J.C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> <br /> [2]姜丽.奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较[J].文教资料,2010(05):44-46.<br /> <br /> [3] Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London: Routledge, 200[…]<br /> <br /> [4]穆雷.卡特福德论翻译和教学[J].中国翻译. 1990(05).<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, Eugene. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6]孙佳.奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨[J].海外英语,2017(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> [7]孙晓曈.卡特福德翻译理论综述[J].读书文摘,2016(08):107.<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;.(Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Xu Yuanchong's Translation Theories - 杨逸 Yang Yi, student no.==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translate poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. So this paper will be divided in three parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories: his principle of three beauties, his principle of three transformations and his principle of three purposes.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong ; principle of three beauties ; principle of three transformations ; principle of three purposes<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。因此本论文主要将分为三部分，结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论：“三美论”,“三化论”和“三之论”。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Principle of Three Beauties===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Transformations===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Purposes===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> <br /> ==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Translation and Translation Study====<br /> <br /> In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue &quot;since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary&quot; was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br /> <br /> A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br /> <br /> Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br /> <br /> Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br /> <br /> Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br /> <br /> Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br /> <br /> Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br /> <br /> Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br /> <br /> Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br /> <br /> ===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br /> <br /> 1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br /> <br /> At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br /> The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations &quot;as a translator&quot; and &quot;as a speaker&quot;. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation &quot;as a translator&quot; refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation &quot;as a speaker&quot; refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br /> <br /> Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of &quot;literary untranslatability&quot;, in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br /> At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> <br /> 3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br /> <br /> The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to &quot;trophies&quot; of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br /> Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br /> <br /> 4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br /> <br /> Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br /> Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> 5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br /> <br /> Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called &quot;the change of expression&quot;; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br /> Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br /> Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br /> <br /> 1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br /> <br /> The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of &quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;, believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br /> <br /> Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public&quot;, believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br /> <br /> The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of &quot;beat foreigners by learning from their advantages&quot;. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br /> <br /> The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward &quot;good translation&quot; and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br /> <br /> 3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br /> <br /> The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot;, that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br /> <br /> 4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br /> <br /> During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br /> <br /> ====Similarities and Differences====<br /> <br /> By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br /> <br /> First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br /> <br /> Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of &quot;universal application&quot;. For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br /> <br /> The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br /> <br /> First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> Secondly, issues relating to &quot;faithfulness&quot; have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of &quot;the translation must be faithful to the original&quot;, various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the &quot;five elements of translation&quot;; Tytler put forward &quot;three principles of translation&quot;; Dao An proposed &quot;&quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of &quot;Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br /> ====Domestication and Doreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br /> <br /> Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br /> <br /> Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br /> <br /> This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br /> <br /> ====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, &quot;three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that &quot;it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as &quot;faithfulness&quot;. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br /> <br /> Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Catford, J. C. (1965). 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''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张瑜 Zhang Yu &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Lu Xun, as China’s renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;. At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br /> <br /> ===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br /> <br /> ====Purpose of Translation====<br /> From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br /> <br /> For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the &quot;guide of future revolutions&quot;. In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that &quot;it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties&quot; (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring &quot;fire and light&quot; for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br /> <br /> For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that &quot;my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290).&quot; It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br /> <br /> About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br /> The concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that &quot;it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle&quot; (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that &quot;the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be &quot;faithful&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;. Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177).&quot; Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br /> <br /> In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. &quot;Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286).&quot; On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that &quot;hard translation&quot; was just &quot;rigid translation&quot;. In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on &quot;hard translation&quot; from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br /> <br /> ====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br /> In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the &quot;exoticness&quot; and &quot;foreignness&quot; of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that &quot;every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression&quot; (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;. His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot; emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;, Zhao Jingshen translated the &quot;Milky Way&quot; into &quot;牛奶路&quot; instead of &quot;银河&quot;. This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br /> <br /> There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that &quot;in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380).&quot; Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that &quot;European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256).&quot; Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that &quot;the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)&quot; Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, although the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br /> <br /> ====Retranslation====<br /> Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that &quot;I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303).&quot; In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br /> <br /> The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Criticism====<br /> As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that &quot;the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306).&quot; Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism &quot;undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field&quot; (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br /> <br /> ===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;, and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br /> <br /> ====Philosophy of &quot;Intermediate&quot;====<br /> In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the &quot;gold mean&quot; in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Language=====<br /> In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that &quot;the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228).&quot; It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br /> In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, &quot;''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152).&quot; Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the &quot;intermedium&quot; to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the &quot;intermediate&quot; for readers and late translators for reference.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br /> <br /> ====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br /> Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br /> <br /> In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br /> <br /> In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that &quot;''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104).&quot; It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br /> <br /> In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of &quot;intermediate&quot; to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br /> *吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br /> *李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's &quot;Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br /> *刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br /> *黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br /> *Huang Xiaojun. &quot;The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization&quot;[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br /> *Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. &quot;The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture&quot;[鲁迅的 &quot;硬译 &quot;理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br /> *Xu Lan. &quot;On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory&quot;[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br /> ===2 Eco-translatology===<br /> ===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br /> Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as &quot;the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment&quot;.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br /> Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br /> ===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br /> In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br /> What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br /> What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br /> ===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br /> Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br /> However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere &quot;servant&quot; of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br /> Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br /> As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br /> ===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br /> ===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br /> After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br /> Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br /> Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br /> Flexibility.<br /> Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br /> ===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br /> Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death.<br /> ===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br /> After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br /> 我知道你天性善良，<br /> -I said,are you being a smartass? <br /> 我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br /> -Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br /> 只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br /> -Do my time... and get out. <br /> 服完刑...就走人<br /> Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br /> 他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br /> Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br /> 有个律师在多管闲事<br /> -Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br /> 对这种人不要心慈手软<br /> Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br /> <br /> ===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br /> China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br /> 有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br /> -Something more is going on here. <br /> 这背后有阴谋<br /> -This is desperation,Michael. <br /> 你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br /> -You're grabbing at straws. <br /> 是想抓救命稻草<br /> Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br /> 可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br /> Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, &quot;It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br /> An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br /> Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br /> 才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br /> 那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br /> -Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br /> 但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br /> Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br /> 跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br /> ===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br /> Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br /> Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br /> -Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br /> 也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br /> -You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br /> 你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br /> -Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br /> 就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br /> Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br /> 我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br /> Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his &quot;teammates&quot; at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br /> 把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br /> Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br /> 我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br /> -Is that the best you can do?<br /> 你就这么点能耐？<br /> -all: Shut up!<br /> 闭嘴!<br /> -Berwick: Not one more word!<br /> 谁也别出声！<br /> Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br /> ===4 Conclusion===<br /> From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br /> However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br /> <br /> [2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br /> <br /> [3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br /> <br /> [4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br /> <br /> [5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br /> <br /> [6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br /> <br /> [7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br /> <br /> [8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing Student No. 202070080650==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br /> <br /> 本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br /> <br /> This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br /> <br /> In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br /> <br /> Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> ===2 Literature Review===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br /> <br /> Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction &amp; Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br /> <br /> Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br /> <br /> Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br /> <br /> Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br /> <br /> According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br /> <br /> All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> ===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br /> <br /> In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br /> <br /> Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br /> <br /> The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br /> <br /> In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br /> <br /> Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br /> TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br /> <br /> It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br /> <br /> Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br /> <br /> Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br /> TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br /> <br /> The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br /> <br /> Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br /> <br /> From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br /> As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br /> <br /> Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br /> TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br /> <br /> This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br /> In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br /> <br /> Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br /> <br /> Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br /> TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br /> <br /> This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br /> <br /> From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br /> <br /> Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br /> TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br /> <br /> This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br /> <br /> For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br /> <br /> From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br /> <br /> Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br /> TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br /> <br /> The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br /> From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br /> <br /> ===4 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. 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Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br /> <br /> ===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br /> Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br /> From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br /> <br /> Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br /> Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's &quot;beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful &quot; and Confucius s &quot;speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning&quot;. Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the &quot;direct translation&quot; advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Dao An(314-385AD)<br /> Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br /> ① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br /> ② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br /> ③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br /> ④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br /> ⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br /> Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br /> He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br /> ① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br /> ② Translating the words of a saint.<br /> ③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br /> Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating &quot;heaven sees man, and man sees heaven&quot;(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that &quot; man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other&quot;(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br /> In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br /> Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, &quot; the language goes beyond the meaning&quot;(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, &quot;the thought surpasses the wording&quot; (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, &quot;the words should not harm the meaning&quot;(文不害意). A good translator should &quot;strive to preserve the original&quot;(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Sengrui(371-438AD)<br /> Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to &quot;rectify names&quot; (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Sengyou(445-518AD)<br /> Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br /> Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br /> ① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br /> ②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br /> ③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br /> ④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br /> ⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of &quot;wisdom&quot;(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br /> In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br /> After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br /> Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br /> Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br /> Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br /> Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br /> <br /> Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br /> Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br /> Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br /> <br /> Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br /> Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br /> <br /> Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br /> Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br /> Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br /> <br /> ===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br /> Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br /> <br /> Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br /> ①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br /> ②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br /> ③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br /> ④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br /> ⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br /> In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br /> <br /> (1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br /> ①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br /> ②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br /> ③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br /> ④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br /> ⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br /> ⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br /> ⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br /> (Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br /> <br /> (2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br /> ①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br /> ②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br /> ③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br /> ④The basic level in translation is word.<br /> ⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br /> Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br /> <br /> (1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br /> ①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br /> ②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br /> ③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br /> ④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> (2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br /> ①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br /> ②The translator must know SL and TL.<br /> ③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br /> ④The translator must use the common speech.<br /> ⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br /> 17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br /> work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br /> <br /> (1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br /> ① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br /> ② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian &quot;sense-for-sense&quot; view of translation.<br /> ③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br /> Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br /> Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the &quot;fire&quot; of the poem.<br /> In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> (2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br /> Tytler set up three basic principles:<br /> ①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br /> ②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br /> ③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of &quot;making known&quot; a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br /> In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br /> <br /> Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br /> <br /> (1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br /> ①Jakobson points out that &quot;there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units&quot;.<br /> ②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: &quot;Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics.&quot;<br /> ③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br /> ④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: &quot;Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey&quot;.<br /> ⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br /> <br /> (2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br /> Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid.&quot; translationese&quot;, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br /> <br /> (3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br /> Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br /> <br /> ===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br /> The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ===6. References===<br /> <br /> Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). &quot;二十世纪中国翻译史&quot; [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. &quot;西北大学出版社&quot; [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). &quot;中国译学理论史稿&quot; [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. &quot;上海外语教育出版社&quot; [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br /> <br /> Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). &quot;概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展&quot; [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. &quot;课程研究&quot; [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br /> <br /> Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). &quot;西方翻译理论通史述评&quot; [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. &quot;语言研究&quot; [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). &quot;从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展&quot; [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. &quot;大学英语&quot; [College English]. (08):117-119.<br /> <br /> Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). &quot;中西翻译简史述评&quot; [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. &quot;校园英语&quot; [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br /> <br /> Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). &quot;西方翻译简史之浅析&quot; [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. &quot;文史纵横&quot; [Literature and History].(18):123.<br /> <br /> Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). &quot;中西翻译理论对比&quot; [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. &quot;海外英语&quot; [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br /> <br /> Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). &quot;浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义&quot; [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. &quot;语言文化&quot; [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br /> <br /> Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). &quot;翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究&quot; [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. &quot;语言艺术研究&quot; [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林鑫 Lin Xin &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the 20th century, translation has been gradually examined and discussed more from a scientifical and linguistic perspective, yet in Bell's view, translation theorists have almost invariably made little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques in their practice. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is &quot;Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice&quot;. Liu Chongde, a well-known Chinese translator, critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, put forward the translation concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;closeness&quot;, compared the two translation methods of direct translation and Italian translation, and proposed the translatability of poetry. He compares the two methods of translation, direct translation and Italian translation, and proposes the translatability of poetry. The influence of Liu Chongde on the study of translation theory is comprehensive and profound. A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br /> ===题目===<br /> 贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> ====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br /> ====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br /> ===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br /> ====2.1 ====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Reference '''===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Nida's Theory and Jin Di's Theory 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> ===Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect===<br /> <br /> ===Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence===<br /> <br /> ===Difference Between Jin's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;漆凯 Qi Kai &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 翻译，笔译与口译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br /> <br /> This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2. Definition of Translation===<br /> Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br /> <br /> First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br /> <br /> Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br /> From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br /> Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, &quot;Xin&quot; means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. &quot;reach&quot; requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. &quot;elegance&quot; refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. &quot;elegance&quot; refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br /> <br /> Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's &quot;follow this purpose without literary decoration&quot;, the &quot;struggle for cultural quality&quot; in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the &quot;five losses and three difficult&quot; by Dao'an, &quot;rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source&quot; by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's &quot;five do not turn&quot;, Zanning's &quot;six examples&quot;, Ma Jianzhong's &quot;good translation&quot; and so on. After Yan Fu, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that &quot;it would rather be faithful than smooth&quot; and &quot;all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work.&quot; Lin Yutang put forward the standard of &quot;faithfulness, smoothness and beauty&quot;. Fu Lei's &quot;attaching importance to spirit but not form&quot;, &quot;harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance&quot;, Qian Zhongshu's &quot;transformation environment&quot;, Jin Shi's &quot;equivalence&quot; translation principle, Liu Zhongde's &quot;faith, reach, cut&quot; regiment, Zhang Jin's &quot;truth, goodness, beauty&quot;, and Xu Yuanchong summed up the &quot;beauty of meaning, sound, form&quot; and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br /> <br /> Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot; has always been the &quot;golden rule&quot; in the field of translation. The translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot; is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of &quot;literal translation and free translation&quot; to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of &quot;the unity of man and nature&quot;, &quot;the subject is integrated into the object&quot;, and it is a &quot;incidental discussion&quot; of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br /> <br /> Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot;, and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br /> According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as &quot;translation as a commentator&quot; put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's &quot;completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language&quot;, the &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot; and the thought circle of &quot;response&quot; and &quot;domestication&quot; advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's &quot;equivalent translation&quot;, PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory &quot;understanding is translation&quot; advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's &quot;translation is rewriting&quot; Hermans's &quot;the text is manipulated by the translator&quot; and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of &quot;domestication&quot;, and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br /> <br /> ===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br /> Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In &quot;language and Culture: context in Translation&quot;, Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br /> <br /> Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br /> <br /> ===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br /> As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br /> First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to &quot;understand&quot;-&quot;discourse&quot;, and then &quot;re-express&quot;, the &quot;discourse&quot; (Marianne Lederer, in another language. 2011). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators. <br /> <br /> Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. These similarities can be simply summarized as &quot;three looks&quot;: to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br /> (1) Differences in measurement criteria<br /> As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although the translation theoretical circles have not formed a unified opinion on translation standards, especially after the &quot;cultural turn&quot;, the translation theoretical circles are even more contentious, the mainstream translation standards for evaluating the quality of translation in China are still based on faithfulness and fluency, which are in line with the standards of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; proposed by Yan Fu. This is in line with the standard of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; proposed by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the original text in terms of content, form, style, and style as far as possible, and to be smooth and fluent. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the merits of interpretation. According to French interpreting expert Céles Covic's theory, the interpretation of the interpreters is not only good but also good. According to the interpretation theory of French interpretation expert Celes Kovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, the purpose of which is to convey the meaning, and the standard is to achieve the meaning and fluency. Interpretation expert Li Yuran proposes the standard of interpretation as accuracy, fluency and speed. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties; fluency means that the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, so that people can easily understand; speed is due to the instantaneous nature of interpretation, and its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to make<br /> Quickness is due to the immediate nature of interpretation, and the time constraint itself requires the interpreter to respond quickly. Interpretation scholar Zhong Weihe advocates that interpretation should follow the principles of fidelity and timeliness. Fidelity means that the translated language must be faithful to the content of the original language and the emotional color of the speech in a particular situation; timeliness means that the communication is timely. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as that of translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation result should be accurate, and the interpreter should not speculate on the content of the original text according to his or her own understanding; the recipient of the translation result should be the target, and the expression form of the translation result must conform to the language habits of the recipient in order to facilitate his or her understanding; in addition, the interpreter needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation when translating.<br /> <br /> (2) The difference of translation process<br /> The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is a... It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Ren, 2009:6). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to &quot;use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality&quot; (Wu Bing, 1995). Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete. Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.<br /> <br /> (3) Different requirements for interpreters<br /> Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br /> <br /> ①Psychological quality<br /> Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. According to Cao Jianxin (1997: 26), &quot;the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process.&quot; The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.<br /> <br /> ②Listening<br /> Interpreting is built on the basis of &quot;listening&quot; and relies on &quot;listening&quot;. To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br /> <br /> ③Memory and shorthand ability<br /> Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the &quot;absence factor&quot; of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Zhong Weihe, 2007: 31). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br /> <br /> ===7. References===<br /> <br /> *Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br /> <br /> *Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br /> <br /> *Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br /> <br /> *Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br /> <br /> *Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br /> <br /> *Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br /> <br /> *Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br /> <br /> *Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br /> <br /> *Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br /> <br /> *Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br /> <br /> *Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> *Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;郭露 Guo Lu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br /> <br /> === '''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> 翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br /> <br /> In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> ==='''Yan Fu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that &quot;there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;. Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Theory'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative &quot;f&quot; so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br /> <br /> (1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> (2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br /> <br /> Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br /> <br /> Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory'''<br /> <br /> Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br /> <br /> ==='''Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br /> <br /> Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br /> <br /> “The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Methods'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br /> <br /> (1) Omission<br /> <br /> In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> (2) Addition<br /> <br /> During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br /> <br /> 彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (3) Alteration<br /> <br /> Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br /> <br /> 日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br /> <br /> Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (4) Adaptation<br /> <br /> Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br /> <br /> 密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory'''<br /> <br /> During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br /> <br /> In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> Charles Dickens. (2008). ''David Copperfield''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). 中国译学理论史稿 [''Draft of Chinese translation theory'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). 中国译学史 [''A History of Chinese Translation'']. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2016). ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br /> <br /> Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Huang Yuanshen. (2011). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). 中外翻译理论教程 [''Translation Theory: A Coursebook'']. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). 撒克逊劫后英雄略 [''Ivanhoe'']. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br /> <br /> Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br /> <br /> Walter Scott. (2009). ''Ivanhoe''. Signet Classics.<br /> <br /> Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br /> <br /> Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). 严复集 [''Yan Fu Ji'']. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br /> <br /> Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). 中西翻译理论简明教程 [''A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories'']. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br /> <br /> ='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han==<br /> &lt;center&gt; Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br /> <br /> In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br /> <br /> In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br /> <br /> According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br /> <br /> The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br /> <br /> Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br /> <br /> In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br /> <br /> Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540 : The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in On the Establishment of Translation Academy (《拟设翻译书院议》): The translator is proficient in foreign languages ​​and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br /> <br /> It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br /> <br /> From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br /> <br /> ===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br /> <br /> By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br /> <br /> In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br /> <br /> In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br /> <br /> It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br /> <br /> Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s Evolution and Ethics, which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br /> <br /> Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. <br /> <br /> Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br /> <br /> From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br /> <br /> Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br /> <br /> The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. <br /> <br /> When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br /> <br /> When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br /> <br /> However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br /> <br /> In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the dao (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s dao of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br /> <br /> In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br /> <br /> ===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br /> Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br /> <br /> Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br /> <br /> Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br /> <br /> However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br /> <br /> The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> * Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br /> * Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br /> * Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot;] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br /> * Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br /> * Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&amp;Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&amp;Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> == Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representative of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida put forward the famous &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory and &quot;functional equivalence&quot; theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devoted himself to teaching, and put forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points, and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br /> ===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> ====Eugene Nida====<br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br /> At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br /> ======Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br /> Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics to carry out translation activities when there are translation problems. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communication of thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br /> <br /> ======Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br /> According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message (Tan Zaixi 1984,10)”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text.<br /> Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br /> At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br /> <br /> ====Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br /> <br /> The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are &quot;man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; and &quot;man proposals, God disposes.&quot; Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, &quot;heaven&quot; dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates &quot;天&quot; into &quot;heaven&quot;, which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of &quot;communicative translation&quot; strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> ====The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Translatability=====<br /> Nida believes that &quot;translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style &quot; (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: &quot;translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author.&quot; (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is &quot;Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. &quot; (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br /> In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br /> <br /> =====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br /> Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: &quot;a land of honey and milk&quot;, which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br /> <br /> =====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br /> Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of &quot;content first, form second&quot;. This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; into &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. In functional equivalence, Nida further defines &quot;information&quot;, stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> <br /> What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on &quot;functional equivalence&quot; and hence &quot;the highest level of equivalence&quot; and &quot;the lowest level of equivalence&quot; are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward &quot;correlative translation&quot; on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of &quot;relevance translation&quot; is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br /> <br /> ====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Different Definition of Translation=====<br /> Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: &quot;the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style&quot; (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: &quot;translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. &quot; (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes &quot;equivalence&quot;, &quot;information&quot;, &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, while Newmark focuses on &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;text&quot;. At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although &quot;information&quot; includes &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> On the contrary, the latter emphasizes &quot;textual meaning&quot;, which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that &quot;text-oriented theory&quot; is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot; at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Nature of Translation=====<br /> The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original &quot;translation is science&quot; into &quot;translation research is science&quot;. In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Theories=====<br /> The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br /> Nida puts forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br /> When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br /> <br /> =====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br /> Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the &quot;sacred status of the original author&quot;, and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that &quot;translation is communication&quot;. If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===My Views on Their Theories===<br /> Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> The principle of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence &quot;John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game&quot;, “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. &quot; &quot;Play the game&quot; means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to &quot;extract the essence&quot; and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1984<br /> *廖七一.当代西方翻译理论探索 [M].译林出版社，2000<br /> *刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社， 2009.9<br /> *方梦之. 中国译学大辞典[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2011<br /> *林敏煜.浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [J].文教资料 2008：61-62<br /> *崔建周，卢静.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [J]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 2006，19(3) ：106-108 <br /> *徐向晖.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨 [J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报 2010，9(1) ：88-89<br /> *杨山青，饶家林. 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用 [J]. 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报 2010（1）：41-42<br /> *胡爱萍. 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究 [J].铜陵学院学报 2014：81<br /> *王小丹. 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[J].陕西师范大学学报2009：131-131<br /> *纽马克. 翻译问题探讨[M]. 上海外语教育出版社，2001<br /> *Tam Jae-hee. [Nida on Translation] [M]. Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company] 1984<br /> *Liao Qiyi. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] [M]. [Translating Forest Press], 2000<br /> *Liu Junping. [Translation and translation] [M]. Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press] 2009.9<br /> Fang Mengzhi. [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] [M]. Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press], 2011<br /> *Lin Min-yu. [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] [J]. [Journal of Translation and Education] 2008: 61-62<br /> *Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] [J]. [Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 2006, 19(3):106-108 <br /> *Xu Xianghui. [A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] [J]. [Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 2010, 9(1): 88-89<br /> *Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin. [The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] [J]. 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London: Prentice Hall International (UK), 1988<br /> <br /> ==A study on the division of western translation theories 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;刘柳 Liu Liu &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br /> <br /> ==='''Keywords'''===<br /> <br /> western translation theories,<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 西方翻译理论划分之研究<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 西方翻译理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅰ.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the &quot;three principles of translation&quot; by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, &quot;Cannibalism&quot;, and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of &quot;différance&quot; deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of &quot;pure language&quot; deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Translation in Ancient Times'''====<br /> <br /> The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero'''=====<br /> <br /> The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', &quot;...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus'''=====<br /> <br /> Heratius was deeply influenced by Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be &quot;sense for sense&quot;. At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that &quot;a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word&quot;. This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation.&quot;(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.3 St. Jerome'''=====<br /> <br /> St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.4 St. Augustine'''=====<br /> <br /> St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use &quot;simple&quot;, &quot;elegant&quot;, or &quot;sacred&quot; style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use &quot;simple&quot; style when translating enlightment texts, use &quot;elegant&quot; style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use &quot;sacred&quot; style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the &quot;semiotics theory&quot; of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the &quot;significatio&quot;, &quot;sonus&quot; and &quot;judgment&quot; in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.2.1 Manlius Boethius'''=====<br /> <br /> Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express &quot;truth without error&quot;, the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.2.2 Dante'''=====<br /> <br /> Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 Translation in Renaissance'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.3.1 Martin Luther'''=====<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, &quot;we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot; (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, &quot;let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German.&quot; (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.3.2 Etienne Dolet'''=====<br /> <br /> Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.1 John Dryden'''=====<br /> <br /> John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, &quot;only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's&quot;. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler'''=====<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get &quot;the same strong feeling&quot; (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are &quot;the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work&quot;, &quot;the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original&quot; and &quot;the translation should have all the ease of original composition&quot; became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.3 Matthw Arnold'''=====<br /> <br /> In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.4 Francis W. Newman'''=====<br /> <br /> Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view. Newman's viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher'''=====<br /> <br /> Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpretating and translation, his views on interpretating waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpretating is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpretating is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.6 Wilhelmvon Humboldt'''=====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.1 Federov'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.2 Roman Jakobson'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.3 John Catford'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.4 Eugene A. Nida'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.5 James Holmes'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.6 Lawrence Venuti'''=====<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅲ.Discussion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅳ.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈莎 Chen Sha &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper makes a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theory and J. C. Catford's translation theory from the perspective of their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding such concepts as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic school of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theory from different perspectives, and the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influence on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，并且同一个术语在两种译论中也被赋予了不同的含义，因此也对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握两种理论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br /> Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, they are based on different linguistic theories. <br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theory is mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformative-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha1.jpg]]<br /> <br /> In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida breaks through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br /> <br /> In summary, Nida breaks through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that through the transformation of deep structure between languages, the faithfulness to the source language can be guaranteed to the greatest extent. At the same time, as the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure, the smoothness of the target language can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu &amp; Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theory breaks through the formal constraints in translation and retains the content of the source language, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practice.<br /> <br /> In contrast, Catford's translation theory is mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language, and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt these two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from four levels, namely, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be simultaneously carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation at that level is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br /> <br /> In summary, Catford’s translation theory is based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theory in a selective way, which makes his translation theory innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday’s systematic linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br /> <br /> ====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br /> Nida's translation theory mainly serves the translation of The Bible, with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey &quot;the will of God” . (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> In Nida’s opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in his process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found for communication. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida's translation theory, Catford did not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focused on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture, and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, but this is also why Catford’s translation theory arouses suspicion of other scholars. Readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theory. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> ====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br /> Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br /> In Nida's translation theory, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information, which means that its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br /> <br /> Catford regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to raw materials, including phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theory, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages cannot be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theory different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> ====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br /> Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of language and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of hoe the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, the translator can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text or when the structure of the original text is cumbersome and difficult to understand. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br /> <br /> Catford believes that &quot;translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language.&quot; (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word &quot;text&quot;, but &quot;textual materials&quot;, because he believed that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon, and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist at the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theory seems to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br /> <br /> In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizng equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of the translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theory focuses on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br /> No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br /> <br /> In the book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida pointed that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called &quot;closest&quot; and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, the translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theory is concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted in the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br /> <br /> Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book A linguistic Theory of Translation, he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford used &quot;replacement&quot; to correspond to Nida's &quot;reproduction&quot;, just because he realized that different languages are different systems that could never be coincided with each other. As a result, there would never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br /> <br /> All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s view of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===4. Significance===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br /> Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> =====4.2 Influences in China=====<br /> In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. As soon as Nida’s translation theory was introduced, the research and citation of it achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theory were published on China Translation, the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theory were published on such core journals as Chinese Science and Technology Translation from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida's translation theory, Catford's translation theory on the contrry has not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theory were published on Chinese Science and Technology Translation from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha2.jpg]]<br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha3.jpg]]<br /> <br /> In summary, compared with Catford's translation theory, which is abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theory is more easily accepted and plays a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Limitations====<br /> Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theory obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of The Bible, and the specific purpose of The Bible to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> As soon as Catford's theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practice, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. “校园英语” [Campus English] 241.<br /> <br /> Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''文教资料'' [Cultural and Educational Materials] 44-46.<br /> <br /> Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. “国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics] 1-7.<br /> <br /> Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's &quot;Equivalence&quot; Translation Theory]. “哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute] 93-95.<br /> <br /> Shi Xishu &amp; Du Ping. 石锡书 &amp; 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theory]. “翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science] 69-71.<br /> <br /> Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. “重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University] 85-89.<br /> <br /> Catford, J. C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶Xu Mengdie ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student no.202020080657 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br /> This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br /> 本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> 1. Research Background<br /> <br /> With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). He distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br /> The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br /> <br /> 2. Research Method<br /> <br /> Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound,etc.<br /> <br /> Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br /> <br /> ===II.Literature Review===<br /> Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br /> <br /> [[File:A.png]]<br /> <br /> Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br /> <br /> [[File:8.png]]<br /> <br /> Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br /> <br /> As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br /> <br /> Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are &quot;Chinese new poetry&quot;, &quot;poem translation&quot;, &quot;the beauty of painting&quot; in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br /> <br /> ====III.Discussion====<br /> Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences. <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the &quot;order&quot; and &quot;benevolence&quot; mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc. (蒋洪新，2001). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name &quot;imagism&quot; for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br /> <br /> In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br /> <br /> ====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br /> <br /> 太阳辛苦了一天，<br /> 赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br /> 喜得满面通红，<br /> 一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br /> <br /> This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br /> <br /> ''&quot;这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。&quot; （《冬夜》评论）<br /> <br /> &quot;Don’t use such an expression as &quot;dim lands of peace.&quot; It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.&quot; (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br /> <br /> “落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”&quot;A wet leaf that clings to the threshold.&quot; <br /> <br /> This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here &quot;wet leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are two different images but the verb &quot;cling&quot; is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both &quot;fallen leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. &quot;Blue, blue is the grass about the river&quot;, &quot;White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door.&quot; There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words &quot;青青&quot; and &quot;皎皎&quot;, which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br /> <br /> Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br /> <br /> ====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Wen Yiduo, 1926). In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br /> <br /> Sea Fever<br /> by： John Masefield<br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br /> <br /> And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br /> <br /> And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br /> <br /> Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br /> <br /> And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br /> <br /> To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br /> <br /> And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br /> <br /> 还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br /> <br /> 海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br /> <br /> 是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br /> <br /> 再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br /> <br /> 走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br /> <br /> 我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br /> <br /> 临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。<br /> <br /> John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations &quot;a star to steer/ a clear call, etc.&quot; are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, &quot;I must go down to the seas again&quot;, which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br /> <br /> To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, &quot;I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,&quot; &quot;again&quot; this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and &quot;lonely sea and the sky &quot; was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom &quot;天涯海角&quot;. &quot;To steer&quot; this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-&quot;做她的向导&quot; to ensure the balance of translation.<br /> Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (诗歌节奏的研究). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br /> <br /> Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert&quot; (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br /> <br /> Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music&quot;. Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br /> <br /> ====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br /> <br /> Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br /> <br /> In a Station of the Metro<br /> The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br /> Petals on a wet, black bough.<br /> <br /> This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is &quot;word&quot;, which is distinct from &quot;syllable&quot; in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br /> Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be &quot;pure form&quot;. So he appealed to &quot;beauty of architecture&quot; and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br /> <br /> Thursday<br /> ——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br /> <br /> And if I loved you Wednesday, <br /> <br /> Well, what is that to you?<br /> <br /> I do not love you Thursday— <br /> <br /> So much is true. <br /> <br /> And why you come complaining <br /> <br /> Is more than I can see.<br /> <br /> I loved you Wednesday,<br /> <br /> —yes—but what Is that to me?<br /> <br /> 礼拜四<br /> <br /> 即使我礼拜三爱你，<br /> <br /> 你管它做什么？<br /> <br /> 礼拜四我并不爱你，<br /> <br /> 却一点也不错。<br /> <br /> 我真不懂，你何为还<br /> <br /> 找着我来纠缠。<br /> <br /> 礼拜三我爱你—对—<br /> <br /> 可是那与我又何干？<br /> <br /> This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, &quot;—yes—but what/Is that to me?&quot;, to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word &quot;—yes—&quot; into the verse before the last one, &quot;礼拜三我爱你—对—&quot; to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -&quot;And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see&quot;. To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, &quot;你何为还找着我来纠缠&quot; into two verses, &quot;你何为还/找着我来纠缠&quot;. Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added &quot;却&quot; to echo &quot;可是&quot; in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br /> In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br /> <br /> ====4.Conclusion====<br /> To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take &quot;order&quot; as &quot;balance&quot;. His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br /> Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br /> <br /> ===V.Reference===<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br /> <br /> Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br /> <br /> Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br /> <br /> Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br /> <br /> Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br /> <br /> Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br /> <br /> Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br /> <br /> Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br /> <br /> Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br /> <br /> Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem &quot;Reminicence of Chrysanthemum&quot;].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's &quot;I am a Cat&quot; with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br /> <br /> This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br /> <br /> Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this &quot;subjectivity&quot; and &quot;conceptualization&quot; and their closely related &quot;perspectives&quot; and &quot;perspectives&quot;. The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of &quot;cognitive narrative&quot; contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br /> <br /> Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The &quot;subject&quot; is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective&quot; is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the &quot;viewpoint&quot; (viewpoint). In other words, &quot;viewpoint&quot; is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br /> <br /> In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br /> <br /> Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br /> <br /> Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br /> <br /> Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br /> <br /> If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br /> <br /> If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being &quot;norms&quot; and &quot;purpose,&quot; which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br /> <br /> The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a &quot;cultural and ideological turn&quot; from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on &quot;translation as rewriting,&quot; &quot;translation of gender,&quot; &quot;postcolonial translation theory,&quot; &quot;(non)visibility of translation,&quot; and &quot;power networks of translation,&quot; among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on &quot;people,&quot; with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br /> <br /> On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The &quot;shift&quot; is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, &quot;conversion operations&quot; refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br /> <br /> Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an &quot;equivalent&quot; translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br /> <br /> In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br /> <br /> <br /> '''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br /> <br /> In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;objective grasping,&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;D mode.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;subjective grasping&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;I-mode&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br /> When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject &quot;conceptually splits&quot; itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br /> <br /> <br /> ⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br /> b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br /> c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br /> （深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br /> <br /> <br /> As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br /> I will now mention what Langacker calls the &quot;stage model&quot;. The &quot;stage model&quot; is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of &quot;speakers&quot;. According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the &quot;subject&quot; of the concept and the object of expression is the &quot;object&quot; of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is &quot;off-stage&quot;. From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is &quot;on-stage&quot;. A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the &quot;off-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the &quot;on-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br /> <br /> Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called &quot;I-mode&quot; (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is &quot;on-stage&quot; and is often viewed as &quot;situation-centered&quot; and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is &quot;direct experience&quot; and its expression is &quot;non-reporting&quot; in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the &quot;D-mode&quot; (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an &quot;off-stage&quot; and &quot;out-of-situation&quot; mode, so the perspective is literally &quot;extrinsic&quot; and &quot;external&quot; to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the &quot;person-centered&quot; view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is &quot;reportive&quot;. These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br /> <br /> The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or &quot;I-mode,&quot; which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called &quot;subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the &quot;D-mode&quot;, which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a &quot;separation of subject and guest,&quot; so to speak, against the former.<br /> <br /> The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br /> <br /> The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br /> The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br /> <br /> The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as &quot;pochan&quot; and &quot;shito&quot;, respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br /> <br /> In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br /> <br /> First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br /> <br /> 1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;On Stage”<br /> 4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. &quot;On Stage”<br /> <br /> ⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is &quot;On Stage”.)<br /> b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;On stage”.)<br /> b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br /> Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's &quot;The Old Man and the Sea&quot; and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br /> <br /> ⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br /> b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br /> <br /> ⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br /> b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br /> <br /> ⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br /> b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br /> <br /> ⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br /> b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br /> <br /> <br /> '''7. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of &quot;perspective&quot; and &quot;subjectivation,&quot; and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's &quot;cognitive typology&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography:'''<br /> <br /> [1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br /> <br /> [2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br /> <br /> [3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br /> <br /> [4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br /> <br /> [5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br /> <br /> [6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br /> <br /> [7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br /> <br /> [8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br /> <br /> [9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br /> <br /> [10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br /> <br /> ==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br /> '''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br /> '''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br /> '''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br /> <br /> '''1 Introduction'''<br /> Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br /> Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br /> Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br /> <br /> '''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br /> Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br /> '''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br /> '''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br /> On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br /> Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br /> '''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br /> '''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br /> Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br /> '''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br /> Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br /> '''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br /> There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br /> '''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br /> China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br /> '''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br /> The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br /> '''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br /> The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br /> '''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br /> The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br /> '''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br /> '''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br /> '''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br /> The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br /> '''5.2 Block Model'''<br /> The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br /> '''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br /> Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br /> '''5.4 Integration Model'''<br /> The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br /> '''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br /> When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br /> '''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br /> As the name implies, &quot;literal translation&quot; is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br /> The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br /> '''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br /> Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br /> In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br /> By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br /> '''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br /> There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br /> When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br /> '''7 Conclusion'''<br /> Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br /> In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> *Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br /> *Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br /> *Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br /> *Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br /> *Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br /> *Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br /> *Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br /> *陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br /> *胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br /> *景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br /> *金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br /> *李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br /> *廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br /> *宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br /> *汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br /> *郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>

Kang Lingfeng https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=111288 2020-12-13T09:32:13Z

<p>Kang Lingfeng: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of Nida’s related papers from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了广泛中国翻译学者的关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译领域所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, etc. In his research, he has proposed such far-reaching translation theories as “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been of far-reaching influences in the western translation.<br /> Chinese translation has always focused on practice and lacks systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000:3) After Yan Fu proposed his distinguished theory “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, it has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, left In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, with Tan Zaixi and Lao Long as the representatives. Nida's theory was introduced to China in the 1980s, and was extensively studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, and translation scholars, including Tan Zaixi, Lao Long and others, compiled his works and introduced his translation theory to China. It is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defines it as the &quot;Nada Phenomenon&quot;.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, a national-level core academic journal, is sponsored by the Compilation and Research Center of the China Foreign Language Bureau and the China Translators Association, as well as the conference journal of the China Translators Association, under the supervision of the Foreign Language Publication and Distribution Bureau of China. It is the window for translation workers to exchange translation research and translation practice experience, the place for academic debate. Chinese translation scholars carry out translation research and academic communication through publishing papers, and the journal sets up columns such as translation research, translation theory and technique, etc., to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, and is an excellent research object to study the dynamics of the Chinese translation industry.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida's theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida's translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> 1.Eugene Nida and His Translation theories<br /> <br /> 2.The Translation Theories of Eugene Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1 Studies on Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1.1 Numbers of Papers, Books and Seminars on the Translation of Nida<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 Focuses of the Studies on Nida's Translation Theories<br /> <br /> 2.2 The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Theorists<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The attitudes Towards Nida's Translation Theories in China<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Transformations of Theorists in China <br /> <br /> 3. The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Translation development<br /> <br /> 3.1 The positive influences<br /> <br /> 3.2 The problems<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Acknowledgements===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==An analysis of main factors influencing the choice of translation strategies, the example of Hongloumeng 解帆 Xie Fan==<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper combed the 40 years of reform and opening-up in China the development course of interpreting research, introduces its experienced four stages: in the late 1970 s to 80 s &quot;bud&quot;, &quot;initial development&quot; of the 1990 s, the first decade of the 21st century &quot;new period&quot;, the second decade of the 21st century in the &quot;development&quot;. Finally, the author makes a review and analysis of the achievements and main performances of Chinese interpretation studies and comments on the current development status and future prospects of Chinese interpretation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文简要梳理改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，介绍其所经历的四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”。并回顾分析中国口译研究的成就和主要表现，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.The development and overview of The study of Interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> 2.1 The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research<br /> <br /> 2.1.1<br /> <br /> 2.1.2<br /> <br /> 2.1.3<br /> <br /> 2.1.4<br /> <br /> 2.2 Representative achievements in The study of Interpretation in China<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation of domestic interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===4.The development trend, characteristics and prospect of Chinese interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译史 翻译高潮 中国社会文化发展<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.<br /> Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. According to some people, &quot;the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society.&quot; (Ma Zuyi 1998:46). And &quot;André Lefevere, in his article &quot;Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation&quot;, mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)<br /> We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed. This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a &quot;pigtail&quot; or a &quot;matchmaker&quot;, and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====<br /> The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====<br /> The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.<br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.<br /> In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===<br /> &quot;Translation is never produced in a vacuum&quot; (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to &quot;objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture&quot;. (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.<br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other. The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as &quot;On the Five Failures&quot; and &quot;Three Failures&quot; by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and &quot;The Eight Preparations&quot; by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough. As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both &quot;true&quot; and &quot;popular&quot;, and no one has been able to surpass them so far. The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the &quot;state of perfection&quot;. He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is &quot;not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning&quot;, and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation. His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was &quot;strict and serious&quot;, without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of &quot;five non-translations&quot; of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures. Liang Qichao, in &quot;Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts,&quot; argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures. After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71). It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. &quot;Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people.&quot; (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures. In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication. By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion. The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius. In the &quot;General Catalogue of the Calendar&quot; submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: &quot;In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate.&quot; That is to say, only through translation can we &quot;understand&quot; (learn and master), and only through &quot;understanding&quot; can we &quot;surpass&quot; (surpass and win). It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, &quot;a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence&quot;. (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation. Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, &quot;when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '&quot;. (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other. The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, &quot;no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) Therefore, in order to &quot;seek new voices in foreign countries&quot;, &quot;not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline&quot; (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must &quot;seek the truth&quot;; in order to &quot;seek the truth&quot;, translation must &quot;tolerate as much disorder as possible&quot;. (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71) At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of &quot;good translation&quot; in his &quot;Ma's Text&quot;: &quot;We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons.&quot; The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of &quot;good translation&quot; is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory. &quot;The May Fourth Literary Revolution replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation. Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural &quot;other&quot; and advocated that &quot;all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work&quot;. He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of &quot;hard translation&quot; of &quot;preferring to believe rather than obey&quot; in response to Zhao Jingshen's &quot;preferring to obey rather than believe&quot;, which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.<br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.<br /> <br /> ===The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===<br /> <br /> ====1.The first translation climax====<br /> &quot;The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.&quot; (Cai Xinle 2006 (10)) (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)<br /> During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.<br /> <br /> ====2.The second translation climax====<br /> The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.<br /> The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.<br /> &quot;In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)<br /> Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.The third Translation Climax====<br /> China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. &quot;During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.&quot; (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)<br /> A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. &quot;Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on &quot;absolute vernacular&quot;; others, such as Lu Xun, &quot;disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)&quot;<br /> In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, &quot;Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly.&quot; (Xu Jun 2006: 30).<br /> The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture. Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that &quot;the history of translation in a country is the history of culture&quot;. It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. 宁波教育学院学报[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br /> <br /> Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.<br /> <br /> Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&amp;Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of &quot;hard translation&quot;].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.<br /> <br /> Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.<br /> <br /> Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of &quot;hard translation&quot;].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.<br /> <br /> Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.<br /> <br /> Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.<br /> <br /> Jiang Xiaohua.蒋晓华.(2003).意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[The Influence of Ideology on Translation: Explanation and New Thinking.中国翻译[Chinese Translation]12.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” (Catford, 1965) And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” (Catford, 1965) From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” (Nida, 1982) He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” (Catford, 1965) He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence. <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form. (Catford, 1965) The later refers to that any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language. (Catford, 1965) He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” (Catford, 1965) There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text. <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida, 1982) To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” (Catford, 1965) And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” (Catford, 1965) This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” (Catford, 1965) In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” (Nida, 1982) Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage.<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> <br /> Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> No x in Nixon.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> 上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> 知者不言, 言者不知。<br /> 信言不美, 美言不信。<br /> 善者不辩, 辩者不善。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”. Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．<br /> <br /> Example 12：<br /> The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,<br /> <br /> They lowing herd wind slowly，o'er the lea，<br /> <br /> The ploughman homeward plods his weary way，<br /> <br /> And leaves the world to darkness and to me.<br /> <br /> From these examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 13:<br /> Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> Have something at one’ s finger-ends 了如指掌<br /> <br /> Like father, like son 有其父, 必有其子<br /> <br /> Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> Seeing is believing 眼见为实<br /> <br /> Kill two birds with one stone 一石二鸟<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 14:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。<br /> <br /> Example 15：<br /> 叶公好龙<br /> Lord Sheh' s love of dragons (Lord Sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them. But when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightened out of his wits.)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 16:<br /> Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> [2]谭载喜, 1999, 《新编奈达论翻译》［M］。北京：中国对外翻译出版公司。<br /> <br /> [3]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [4]Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt; 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 勒弗菲尔的操纵理论<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 意识形态； 诗学； 赞助人；操纵<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130) The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81) Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department. The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature, and there are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2. Cases Study===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Cases Study on Ideology''' <br /> <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. <br /> English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Cases Study on Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Cases Study on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> Huang Mingjuan. 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''[Youth Literator] 144-145.<br /> <br /> Jia Shanshan. 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''[Crazy English] 168-169.<br /> <br /> Long Juan, Tang Bo. 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''[Modern English] 63-65.<br /> <br /> Xie Chengfeng. 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''[The Science Education Article Collects] 180.<br /> <br /> Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie. 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''[Journal of Zhongzhou University] 105-108.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xiaojuan. 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''[Xi 'an Social Sciences] 130-131.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yuanyuan. 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College] 81-82.<br /> <br /> Zhou Ya. 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''[Overseas English] 176-178.<br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning==<br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies==<br /> ==罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观==<br /> 摘要：自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> Key words: Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> Abstract: “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As well all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator’s thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> Introduction: There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida’s “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes’ “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell’s “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. Here comes another question: What is the main focus of translation? Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called “Language and Translation” that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? This is a question which attracts many translation scholars’ attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What’s worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell’s translation process model a special and valuable one.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information, but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; Communitive function; Equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> <br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.(Catford 1965,20)<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.<br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.<br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> <br /> From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute.<br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. (Liu Junping2009,140) Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)<br /> <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. (Eugene Nida 1964) “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text.<br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration.<br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues.<br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====<br /> <br /> (1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’ s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation.<br /> (2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> ① Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.<br /> ② He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> ③ The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> ④ As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination.<br /> (3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> ① It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ② It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> ③ Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> ④ It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”.<br /> Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.<br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. (Nida 1969)<br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form.<br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages. (Catford 1965)<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned.<br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tanzaixi 1999)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method is not suitable. <br /> Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1] Catford, J.C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> <br /> [2]姜丽.奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较[J].文教资料,2010(05):44-46.<br /> <br /> [3] Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London: Routledge, 200[…]<br /> <br /> [4]穆雷.卡特福德论翻译和教学[J].中国翻译. 1990(05).<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, Eugene. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6]孙佳.奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨[J].海外英语,2017(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> [7]孙晓曈.卡特福德翻译理论综述[J].读书文摘,2016(08):107.<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)<br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;.(Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation.(Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). &quot;殊途同归&quot;——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. [&quot;Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination&quot;——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.<br /> <br /> Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.<br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Xu Yuanchong's Translation Theories - 杨逸 Yang Yi, student no.==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translate poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. So this paper will be divided in three parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories: his principle of three beauties, his principle of three transformations and his principle of three purposes.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong ; principle of three beauties ; principle of three transformations ; principle of three purposes<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。因此本论文主要将分为三部分，结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论：“三美论”,“三化论”和“三之论”。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Principle of Three Beauties===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Transformations===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Purposes===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> <br /> ==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Translation and Translation Study====<br /> <br /> In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue &quot;since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary&quot; was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br /> <br /> A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br /> <br /> Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br /> <br /> Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br /> <br /> Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br /> <br /> Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br /> <br /> Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br /> <br /> Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br /> <br /> Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br /> <br /> ===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br /> <br /> 1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br /> <br /> At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br /> The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations &quot;as a translator&quot; and &quot;as a speaker&quot;. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation &quot;as a translator&quot; refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation &quot;as a speaker&quot; refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br /> <br /> Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of &quot;literary untranslatability&quot;, in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br /> At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> <br /> 3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br /> <br /> The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to &quot;trophies&quot; of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br /> Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br /> <br /> 4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br /> <br /> Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br /> Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> 5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br /> <br /> Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called &quot;the change of expression&quot;; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br /> Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br /> Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br /> <br /> 1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br /> <br /> The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of &quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;, believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br /> <br /> Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public&quot;, believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br /> <br /> The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of &quot;beat foreigners by learning from their advantages&quot;. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br /> <br /> The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward &quot;good translation&quot; and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br /> <br /> 3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br /> <br /> The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot;, that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br /> <br /> 4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br /> <br /> During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br /> <br /> ====Similarities and Differences====<br /> <br /> By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br /> <br /> First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br /> <br /> Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of &quot;universal application&quot;. For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br /> <br /> The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br /> <br /> First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> Secondly, issues relating to &quot;faithfulness&quot; have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of &quot;the translation must be faithful to the original&quot;, various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the &quot;five elements of translation&quot;; Tytler put forward &quot;three principles of translation&quot;; Dao An proposed &quot;&quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of &quot;Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br /> ====Domestication and Doreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br /> <br /> Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br /> <br /> Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br /> <br /> This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br /> <br /> ====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, &quot;three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that &quot;it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as &quot;faithfulness&quot;. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br /> <br /> Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Catford, J. C. (1965). 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''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张瑜 Zhang Yu &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Lu Xun, as China’s renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;. At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br /> <br /> ===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br /> <br /> ====Purpose of Translation====<br /> From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br /> <br /> For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the &quot;guide of future revolutions&quot;. In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that &quot;it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties&quot; (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring &quot;fire and light&quot; for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br /> <br /> For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that &quot;my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290).&quot; It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br /> <br /> About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br /> The concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that &quot;it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle&quot; (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that &quot;the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be &quot;faithful&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;. Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177).&quot; Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br /> <br /> In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. &quot;Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286).&quot; On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that &quot;hard translation&quot; was just &quot;rigid translation&quot;. In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on &quot;hard translation&quot; from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br /> <br /> ====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br /> In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the &quot;exoticness&quot; and &quot;foreignness&quot; of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that &quot;every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression&quot; (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;. His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot; emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;, Zhao Jingshen translated the &quot;Milky Way&quot; into &quot;牛奶路&quot; instead of &quot;银河&quot;. This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br /> <br /> There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that &quot;in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380).&quot; Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that &quot;European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256).&quot; Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that &quot;the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)&quot; Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, although the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br /> <br /> ====Retranslation====<br /> Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that &quot;I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303).&quot; In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br /> <br /> The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Criticism====<br /> As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that &quot;the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306).&quot; Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism &quot;undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field&quot; (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br /> <br /> ===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;, and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br /> <br /> ====Philosophy of &quot;Intermediate&quot;====<br /> In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the &quot;gold mean&quot; in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Language=====<br /> In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that &quot;the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228).&quot; It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br /> In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, &quot;''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152).&quot; Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the &quot;intermedium&quot; to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the &quot;intermediate&quot; for readers and late translators for reference.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br /> <br /> ====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br /> Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br /> <br /> In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br /> <br /> In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that &quot;''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104).&quot; It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br /> <br /> In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of &quot;intermediate&quot; to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br /> *吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br /> *李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's &quot;Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br /> *刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br /> *黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br /> *Huang Xiaojun. &quot;The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization&quot;[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br /> *Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. &quot;The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture&quot;[鲁迅的 &quot;硬译 &quot;理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br /> *Xu Lan. &quot;On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory&quot;[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br /> ===2 Eco-translatology===<br /> ===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br /> Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as &quot;the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment&quot;.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br /> Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br /> ===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br /> In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br /> What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br /> What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br /> ===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br /> Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br /> However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere &quot;servant&quot; of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br /> Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br /> As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br /> ===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br /> ===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br /> After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br /> Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br /> Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br /> Flexibility.<br /> Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br /> ===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br /> Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death.<br /> ===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br /> After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br /> 我知道你天性善良，<br /> -I said,are you being a smartass? <br /> 我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br /> -Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br /> 只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br /> -Do my time... and get out. <br /> 服完刑...就走人<br /> Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br /> 他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br /> Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br /> 有个律师在多管闲事<br /> -Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br /> 对这种人不要心慈手软<br /> Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br /> <br /> ===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br /> China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br /> 有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br /> -Something more is going on here. <br /> 这背后有阴谋<br /> -This is desperation,Michael. <br /> 你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br /> -You're grabbing at straws. <br /> 是想抓救命稻草<br /> Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br /> 可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br /> Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, &quot;It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br /> An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br /> Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br /> 才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br /> 那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br /> -Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br /> 但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br /> Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br /> 跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br /> ===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br /> Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br /> Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br /> -Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br /> 也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br /> -You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br /> 你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br /> -Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br /> 就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br /> Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br /> 我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br /> Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his &quot;teammates&quot; at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br /> 把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br /> Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br /> 我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br /> -Is that the best you can do?<br /> 你就这么点能耐？<br /> -all: Shut up!<br /> 闭嘴!<br /> -Berwick: Not one more word!<br /> 谁也别出声！<br /> Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br /> ===4 Conclusion===<br /> From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br /> However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br /> <br /> [2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br /> <br /> [3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br /> <br /> [4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br /> <br /> [5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br /> <br /> [6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br /> <br /> [7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br /> <br /> [8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing Student No. 202070080650==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。<br /> <br /> 本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.<br /> <br /> This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension. <br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation<br /> <br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology. <br /> <br /> In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion, because the easiest and the most economical way to grasp the basic information of a product or a company, for most people, is to watch their advertising videos. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before. However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope. Yet according to the author’s research, few studies about advertisement are conducted with the guidance of Eco-translatology, the emerging translation theory, so it may bring out any possible enlightenment by applying Eco-translatology theory to advertising translation.<br /> <br /> Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, be it Chinese version or English version, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> ===2 Literature Review===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all the creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages. As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback. If the work were employed in many circumstances frequently and accepted by most readers, certainly, it would last for long time; otherwise, maybe the mediocre one would be confronted with the tendency to be replaced.<br /> <br /> Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001), researches on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006). As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out direction for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction &amp; Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013). In order to provide some new inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017).<br /> <br /> Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015). It has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from the three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017). <br /> <br /> Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ effort, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Subtitle Translation===<br /> <br /> Subtitle translation of advertising videos, a part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies. <br /> <br /> According to Wang (2007), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied subtitle translation’s language features, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015). 2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only the films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019). After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in Western Leather by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020).<br /> <br /> All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. However, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations, translation skill promoted by Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> ===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with the commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principles of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background and the local customs of both source language and target language, and other key points; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text and use appropriate words to translate the text so that readers using different languages would know the basic information of the texts and arouse emotion that the writer wants to express.<br /> <br /> In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyze from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively. <br /> <br /> Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL. The first video, the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world. In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpiece of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. In 2018, the advertising video has been widely discussed online and offline, so it acted well in arousing people’s awareness of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions. After the definition of eco-environment, the features of words people use in daily communication lie on these points ranging from clarity, clearness, easy to understand, frequently using idioms and others. Viewing from the whole context, there is less requirement and loose syntactical connection in grammatical correction as many broken sentences exist, be it Chinese version or English version. And at the same time, some idioms show their presence in the advertising video. <br /> <br /> The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine. Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited, has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. Since its founding in 2009, Huawei Marine has written glorious pages in submarine cable network, which has greatly facilitated the communication among people in all over the world. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. The advertising video can be divided into three parts targeting at different focuses respectively, including the tough situation, achievements Huawei Marine has made and the company’s vision. Viewing from the whole context, it can be noticed that the Chinese version describes those places and achievements more broadly by employing some general words with profound meanings, while the English version describes the corporate’s achievements more directly. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.<br /> <br /> The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL. It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. The benefits of digital technology should not be confined to those with large assets, and it is HUAWEI’s mission to bring technology to benefit people everywhere. As the world is entering an era of information, the gap between wealth and poor continue to increase as there lies the information gap between them. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era. Therefore, to engage in the non-profit project conveys that HUAWEI has professional skills with strong social responsibility. In this sense, it seems that both versions are communicating with customers and transferring the information that: HUAWEI is a good company with professional skills and strong social responsibility. Both Chinese version and English version have transmitted the above information to customers successfully, so undoubtedly, the translation is successful.<br /> <br /> In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions.<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.<br /> <br /> Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。<br /> TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.<br /> <br /> It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of corporate promotion. <br /> <br /> Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of the International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.<br /> <br /> Eg.2 ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘<br /> TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.<br /> <br /> The subtitle translation is selected from the second advertising video, Huawei Marine. In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings, including some places with magical power, secret places, unknown places and others, each of which has different focus respectively. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times, especially “秘境” showing the poetry aesthetic feeling. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people”, which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. After all, “秘境” in this video focuses on the seclusion of the ocean. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.<br /> <br /> Based on the above analysis, translator, targeting at different audiences, employed different way to reach the same goal that enhances the corporate image, so he does a good job from the perspective of cultural transformational dimension.<br /> <br /> From the above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages. As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.<br /> As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate the difference or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.<br /> <br /> Eg.3 ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。<br /> TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication. <br /> <br /> This example comes from Huawei Marine, an advertising video promoting the corporate image of Huawei Marine. “天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River as it was difficult for people to cross it. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm. After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads<br /> In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background. <br /> <br /> Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.<br /> <br /> Eg.4 ST: 科技普济天下。<br /> TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.<br /> <br /> This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.<br /> <br /> From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ more broad words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===<br /> <br /> The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text. In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, project or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company. In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure. However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.<br /> <br /> Eg.5 ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。<br /> TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.<br /> <br /> This example is selected from TECH4ALL, a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children. <br /> <br /> For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era and against the whole background of people in Nigeria and Bangladesh lacking access to Internet. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before. <br /> <br /> From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely. <br /> <br /> Eg. 6 ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。<br /> TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.<br /> <br /> The sixth example is selected from an advertising video of non-profit project, TECH4ALL. In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video--- digital technology can show its presence in ironing out those unfortunates. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and translated text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world. As the translation displays both implications of the source text, it is also a complete transformation of communicative intention.<br /> From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when they conduct translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation. <br /> <br /> ===4 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory. <br /> <br /> With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release. The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration. From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1] Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003(4): 283-291.<br /> [2] Hu, Gengshen. Translator-centredness [J]. 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Features and Limitations of Subtitle Translation [J]. 商情, 2019 (27): 247.<br /> [7] 方梦之. 翻译大国需有自创的译学话语体系[J]. 中国外语, 2017 (5): 93-100.<br /> [8] 方梦之, 袁丽梅. 当今翻译研究的主要论题——四种国际译学期刊十年（2004-2014）考察[J]. 外语与翻译, 2017 (1): 1-7.<br /> [9] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论初探[R]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛宣读论文. 2001.<br /> [10] 胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译原则和翻译方法[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (3): 49-53.<br /> [11] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学诠释[R]. 翻译全球文化：走向跨学科的理论构建. 2006.<br /> [12] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学解读[J]. 中国翻译, 2008 (29: 6): 11-15.<br /> [13] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]. 中国翻译, 2011 (32: 2): 5-9, 95.<br /> [14] 胡庚申. 若干生态翻译学视角的应用翻译研究[J]. 上海翻译, 2017 (5): 1-6, 95.<br /> [15] 刘云虹, 许钧. 如何把握翻译的丰富性、复杂性与创造性——关于翻译本质的对谈[J]. 中国外语, 2016 (13:1): 95-100.<br /> [16] 刘书虹, 许均. 翻译的定位语翻译价值的把握——关于翻译价值的对谈[J]. 中国翻译, 2017 (6): 54-61.<br /> [17] 刘晓辉, 张亮. 影视剧字幕翻译与跨文化传播[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (6). <br /> [18] 汤一昕. 生态翻译学视角下的广告语翻译[J]. 东南大学学报, 2015 (A1): 143-145.<br /> [19] 王安. 浅谈华语影视剧的字幕翻译[J]. 西部皮革, 2020 (4): 150. <br /> [20] 王娟,国外字幕翻译认知实证研究：分析与展望[J]. 外语学刊, 2020 (2): 88-94.<br /> [21] 吴蔚. 2013，论影视字幕翻译的语言特点及翻译策略 [J]. 电影文学, 2013 (24): 154-155.<br /> [22] 邢彦超, 董海琳. 生态翻译学视角下企业英译探析[J]. 华北理工大学学报, 2017 (17: 1): 142-144.<br /> [23] 郑熙青.影视作品字幕翻译中的译者可见度和社群性[J]. 文艺研究, 2020 (3): 109-121.<br /> [24] 朱婧妍. 生态翻译学视角下的中国电影“走出去”字幕翻译研究——以《老炮儿》为例[J]. 出版广角, 2017 (21): 78-80,95.<br /> [25] 胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社, 2004.<br /> [26] 胡庚申. 生态翻译学：诠释与架构[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2013.<br /> [27] 曹盛华. 当代商务英语翻译研究[M]. 北京: 中国水利水电出版社, 2016.<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> ==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613==<br /> &lt;center&gt;李梦 Li Meng &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention.Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)<br /> <br /> ===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===<br /> Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====<br /> From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br /> <br /> Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)<br /> Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's &quot;beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful &quot; and Confucius s &quot;speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning&quot;. Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the &quot;direct translation&quot; advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Dao An(314-385AD)<br /> Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本)<br /> ① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO. <br /> ② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.<br /> ③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).<br /> ④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).<br /> ⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.<br /> Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History? <br /> He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).<br /> ① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.<br /> ② Translating the words of a saint.<br /> ③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)<br /> Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating &quot;heaven sees man, and man sees heaven&quot;(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that &quot; man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other&quot;(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.<br /> In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)<br /> <br /> Huiyuan(334-416AD)<br /> Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, &quot; the language goes beyond the meaning&quot;(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, &quot;the thought surpasses the wording&quot; (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, &quot;the words should not harm the meaning&quot;(文不害意). A good translator should &quot;strive to preserve the original&quot;(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Sengrui(371-438AD)<br /> Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to &quot;rectify names&quot; (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Sengyou(445-518AD)<br /> Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)<br /> <br /> Xuanzang(600-664AD)<br /> Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:<br /> ① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.<br /> ②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.<br /> ③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.<br /> ④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).<br /> ⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of &quot;wisdom&quot;(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====<br /> In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====<br /> After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921)<br /> Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Liang Qichao(1873-1929)<br /> Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Lin Yutang(1895-1976)<br /> Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)<br /> <br /> Lu Xun(1881-1936)<br /> Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is &quot;I'd rather be faithful than smooth&quot;(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br /> <br /> Ai Siqi(1910-1966)<br /> Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)<br /> Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br /> <br /> Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)<br /> Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)<br /> <br /> Fu Lei(1908-1966)<br /> Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br /> <br /> Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)<br /> Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)<br /> <br /> ===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====<br /> Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：<br /> <br /> Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)<br /> ①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.<br /> ②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).<br /> ③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.<br /> ④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.<br /> ⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====<br /> In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :<br /> <br /> (1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)<br /> ①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.<br /> ②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.<br /> ③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.<br /> ④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.<br /> ⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.<br /> ⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.<br /> ⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.<br /> (Zhang Yan 2011,117)<br /> <br /> (2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)<br /> ①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.<br /> ②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.<br /> ③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.<br /> ④The basic level in translation is word.<br /> ⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====<br /> Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :<br /> <br /> (1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)<br /> ①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.<br /> ②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.<br /> ③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation<br /> ④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> (2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546) <br /> ①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.<br /> ②The translator must know SL and TL.<br /> ③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.<br /> ④The translator must use the common speech.<br /> ⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====<br /> 17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern <br /> work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)<br /> <br /> Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：<br /> <br /> (1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:<br /> ① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.<br /> ② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian &quot;sense-for-sense&quot; view of translation.<br /> ③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.<br /> Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.<br /> Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the &quot;fire&quot; of the poem.<br /> In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> (2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.<br /> Tytler set up three basic principles:<br /> ①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work<br /> ②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.<br /> ③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)<br /> <br /> In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of &quot;making known&quot; a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====<br /> In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method. Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123) <br /> <br /> Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：<br /> <br /> (1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)<br /> ①Jakobson points out that &quot;there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units&quot;.<br /> ②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: &quot;Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics.&quot;<br /> ③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.<br /> ④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: &quot;Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey&quot;.<br /> ⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）<br /> <br /> (2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)<br /> Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid.&quot; translationese&quot;, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25).<br /> <br /> (3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)<br /> Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed. Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.（Liang Dan 2016,105）<br /> <br /> ===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===<br /> The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.<br /> <br /> ===6. References===<br /> <br /> Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). &quot;二十世纪中国翻译史&quot; [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. &quot;西北大学出版社&quot; [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). &quot;中国译学理论史稿&quot; [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. &quot;上海外语教育出版社&quot; [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.<br /> <br /> Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). &quot;概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展&quot; [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. &quot;课程研究&quot; [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.<br /> <br /> Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). &quot;西方翻译理论通史述评&quot; [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. &quot;语言研究&quot; [Language Study].(18):1-3.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). &quot;从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展&quot; [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. &quot;大学英语&quot; [College English]. (08):117-119.<br /> <br /> Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). &quot;中西翻译简史述评&quot; [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. &quot;校园英语&quot; [Campus English]. (23):239-240<br /> <br /> Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). &quot;西方翻译简史之浅析&quot; [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. &quot;文史纵横&quot; [Literature and History].(18):123.<br /> <br /> Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). &quot;中西翻译理论对比&quot; [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. &quot;海外英语&quot; [Overseas English]. (04):106-104.<br /> <br /> Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). &quot;浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义&quot; [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. &quot;语言文化&quot; [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.<br /> <br /> Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). &quot;翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究&quot; [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. &quot;语言艺术研究&quot; [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林鑫 Lin Xin &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the 20th century, translation has been gradually examined and discussed more from a scientifical and linguistic perspective, yet in Bell's view, translation theorists have almost invariably made little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques in their practice. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is &quot;Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice&quot;. Liu Chongde, a well-known Chinese translator, critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, put forward the translation concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;closeness&quot;, compared the two translation methods of direct translation and Italian translation, and proposed the translatability of poetry. He compares the two methods of translation, direct translation and Italian translation, and proposes the translatability of poetry. The influence of Liu Chongde on the study of translation theory is comprehensive and profound. A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br /> ===题目===<br /> 贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> ====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br /> ====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br /> ===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br /> ====2.1 ====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Reference '''===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Nida's Theory and Jin Di's Theory 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> ===Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect===<br /> <br /> ===Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence===<br /> <br /> ===Difference Between Jin's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;漆凯 Qi Kai &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translation and interpretation centering on translation and interpretation. then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 翻译，笔译与口译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation. (Liu Heping 2009,35)<br /> <br /> This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture. Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences. Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2. Definition of Translation===<br /> Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.<br /> <br /> First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts. In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form. Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)<br /> <br /> Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question. For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation. By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended. In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.(Ma Chao 2010,18)<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===<br /> From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Research status of Translation Principles in China====<br /> Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself. Although the translation is still not done, &quot;Xin&quot; means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. &quot;reach&quot; requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. &quot;elegance&quot; refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. &quot;elegance&quot; refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)<br /> <br /> Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's &quot;follow this purpose without literary decoration&quot;, the &quot;struggle for cultural quality&quot; in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the &quot;five losses and three difficult&quot; by Dao'an, &quot;rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source&quot; by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's &quot;five do not turn&quot;, Zanning's &quot;six examples&quot;, Ma Jianzhong's &quot;good translation&quot; and so on. After Yan Fu, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; also has a new development. For example, Lu Xun said that &quot;it would rather be faithful than smooth&quot; and &quot;all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work.&quot; Lin Yutang put forward the standard of &quot;faithfulness, smoothness and beauty&quot;. Fu Lei's &quot;attaching importance to spirit but not form&quot;, &quot;harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance&quot;, Qian Zhongshu's &quot;transformation environment&quot;, Jin Shi's &quot;equivalence&quot; translation principle, Liu Zhongde's &quot;faith, reach, cut&quot; regiment, Zhang Jin's &quot;truth, goodness, beauty&quot;, and Xu Yuanchong summed up the &quot;beauty of meaning, sound, form&quot; and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)<br /> <br /> Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot; has always been the &quot;golden rule&quot; in the field of translation. The translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot; is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of &quot;literal translation and free translation&quot; to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of &quot;the unity of man and nature&quot;, &quot;the subject is integrated into the object&quot;, and it is a &quot;incidental discussion&quot; of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)<br /> <br /> Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance&quot;, and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Research status of Translation Principles in the West====<br /> According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as &quot;translation as a commentator&quot; put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, AlexanderFraserTytler's &quot;completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language&quot;, the &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot; and the thought circle of &quot;response&quot; and &quot;domestication&quot; advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's &quot;equivalent translation&quot;, PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory &quot;understanding is translation&quot; advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's &quot;translation is rewriting&quot; Hermans's &quot;the text is manipulated by the translator&quot; and so on. In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of &quot;domestication&quot;, and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)<br /> <br /> ===4. Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===<br /> Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In &quot;language and Culture: context in Translation&quot;, Eugene A. Nida (2006 105 holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding. After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style. (Marianne Lederer 2011,12)<br /> <br /> Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on. Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech, constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)<br /> <br /> ===5. Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===<br /> As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future. Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques. Is also consistent or similar. Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====<br /> First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language. Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to &quot;understand&quot;-&quot;discourse&quot;, and then &quot;re-express&quot;, the &quot;discourse&quot; (Marianne Lederer, in another language. 2011). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness. Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident. Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. Secondly, post-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision. In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators. <br /> <br /> Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. These similarities can be simply summarized as &quot;three looks&quot;: to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 Differences between Translating and Interpreting====<br /> (1) Differences in measurement criteria<br /> As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although the translation theoretical circles have not formed a unified opinion on translation standards, especially after the &quot;cultural turn&quot;, the translation theoretical circles are even more contentious, the mainstream translation standards for evaluating the quality of translation in China are still based on faithfulness and fluency, which are in line with the standards of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; proposed by Yan Fu. This is in line with the standard of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot; proposed by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the original text in terms of content, form, style, and style as far as possible, and to be smooth and fluent. Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the merits of interpretation. According to French interpreting expert Céles Covic's theory, the interpretation of the interpreters is not only good but also good. According to the interpretation theory of French interpretation expert Celes Kovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, the purpose of which is to convey the meaning, and the standard is to achieve the meaning and fluency. Interpretation expert Li Yuran proposes the standard of interpretation as accuracy, fluency and speed. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties; fluency means that the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, so that people can easily understand; speed is due to the instantaneous nature of interpretation, and its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to make<br /> Quickness is due to the immediate nature of interpretation, and the time constraint itself requires the interpreter to respond quickly. Interpretation scholar Zhong Weihe advocates that interpretation should follow the principles of fidelity and timeliness. Fidelity means that the translated language must be faithful to the content of the original language and the emotional color of the speech in a particular situation; timeliness means that the communication is timely. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as that of translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same. However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation result should be accurate, and the interpreter should not speculate on the content of the original text according to his or her own understanding; the recipient of the translation result should be the target, and the expression form of the translation result must conform to the language habits of the recipient in order to facilitate his or her understanding; in addition, the interpreter needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation when translating.<br /> <br /> (2) The difference of translation process<br /> The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose. Interpreting is a... It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Ren, 2009:6). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to &quot;use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality&quot; (Wu Bing, 1995). Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions. The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied. In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete. Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation. Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.<br /> <br /> (3) Different requirements for interpreters<br /> Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:<br /> <br /> ①Psychological quality<br /> Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. According to Cao Jianxin (1997: 26), &quot;the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process.&quot; The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc. Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.<br /> <br /> ②Listening<br /> Interpreting is built on the basis of &quot;listening&quot; and relies on &quot;listening&quot;. To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation. Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words. In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences. For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.<br /> <br /> ③Memory and shorthand ability<br /> Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the &quot;absence factor&quot; of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Zhong Weihe, 2007: 31). As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge. In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.<br /> <br /> ===7. References===<br /> <br /> *Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.<br /> <br /> *Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.<br /> <br /> *Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.<br /> <br /> *Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.<br /> <br /> *Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br /> <br /> *Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.<br /> <br /> *Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.<br /> <br /> *Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].<br /> <br /> *Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.<br /> <br /> *Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br /> <br /> *Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.<br /> <br /> *Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].<br /> <br /> *Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;郭露 Guo Lu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br /> <br /> === '''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> 翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br /> <br /> In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> ==='''Yan Fu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that &quot;there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;. Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Theory'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative &quot;f&quot; so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br /> <br /> (1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> (2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br /> <br /> Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br /> <br /> Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory'''<br /> <br /> Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br /> <br /> ==='''Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br /> <br /> Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br /> <br /> “The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Methods'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br /> <br /> (1) Omission<br /> <br /> In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> (2) Addition<br /> <br /> During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br /> <br /> 彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (3) Alteration<br /> <br /> Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br /> <br /> 日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br /> <br /> Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (4) Adaptation<br /> <br /> Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br /> <br /> 密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory'''<br /> <br /> During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br /> <br /> In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> Charles Dickens. (2008). ''David Copperfield''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). 中国译学理论史稿 [''Draft of Chinese translation theory'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). 中国译学史 [''A History of Chinese Translation'']. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2016). ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br /> <br /> Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Huang Yuanshen. (2011). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). 中外翻译理论教程 [''Translation Theory: A Coursebook'']. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). 撒克逊劫后英雄略 [''Ivanhoe'']. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br /> <br /> Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br /> <br /> Walter Scott. (2009). ''Ivanhoe''. Signet Classics.<br /> <br /> Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br /> <br /> Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). 严复集 [''Yan Fu Ji'']. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br /> <br /> Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). 中西翻译理论简明教程 [''A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories'']. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br /> <br /> ='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han==<br /> &lt;center&gt; Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br /> <br /> In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': (Liu Miqing 2012, 1) <br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br /> <br /> In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br /> <br /> According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br /> <br /> The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br /> <br /> Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br /> <br /> In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br /> <br /> Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540 : The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in On the Establishment of Translation Academy (《拟设翻译书院议》): The translator is proficient in foreign languages ​​and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br /> <br /> It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br /> <br /> From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br /> <br /> ===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br /> <br /> By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br /> <br /> In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br /> <br /> In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br /> <br /> It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br /> <br /> Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s Evolution and Ethics, which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br /> <br /> Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. <br /> <br /> Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br /> <br /> From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br /> <br /> Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br /> <br /> The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. <br /> <br /> When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br /> <br /> When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br /> <br /> However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br /> <br /> In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the dao (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s dao of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br /> <br /> In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br /> <br /> ===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br /> Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br /> <br /> Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br /> <br /> Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br /> <br /> However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br /> <br /> The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> * Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br /> * Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br /> * Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot;] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br /> * Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br /> * Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&amp;Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&amp;Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> == Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representative of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida put forward the famous &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory and &quot;functional equivalence&quot; theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devoted himself to teaching, and put forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points, and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br /> ===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> ====Eugene Nida====<br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br /> At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br /> ======Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br /> Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics to carry out translation activities when there are translation problems. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communication of thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br /> <br /> ======Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br /> According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message (Tan Zaixi 1984,10)”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text.<br /> Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br /> At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br /> <br /> ====Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br /> <br /> The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are &quot;man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; and &quot;man proposals, God disposes.&quot; Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, &quot;heaven&quot; dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates &quot;天&quot; into &quot;heaven&quot;, which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of &quot;communicative translation&quot; strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> ====The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Translatability=====<br /> Nida believes that &quot;translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style &quot; (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: &quot;translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author.&quot; (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is &quot;Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. &quot; (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br /> In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br /> <br /> =====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br /> Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: &quot;a land of honey and milk&quot;, which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br /> <br /> =====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br /> Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of &quot;content first, form second&quot;. This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; into &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. In functional equivalence, Nida further defines &quot;information&quot;, stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> <br /> What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on &quot;functional equivalence&quot; and hence &quot;the highest level of equivalence&quot; and &quot;the lowest level of equivalence&quot; are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward &quot;correlative translation&quot; on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of &quot;relevance translation&quot; is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br /> <br /> ====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Different Definition of Translation=====<br /> Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: &quot;the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style&quot; (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: &quot;translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. &quot; (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes &quot;equivalence&quot;, &quot;information&quot;, &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, while Newmark focuses on &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;text&quot;. At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although &quot;information&quot; includes &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> On the contrary, the latter emphasizes &quot;textual meaning&quot;, which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that &quot;text-oriented theory&quot; is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot; at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Nature of Translation=====<br /> The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original &quot;translation is science&quot; into &quot;translation research is science&quot;. In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Theories=====<br /> The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br /> Nida puts forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br /> When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br /> <br /> =====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br /> Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the &quot;sacred status of the original author&quot;, and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that &quot;translation is communication&quot;. If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===My Views on Their Theories===<br /> Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> The principle of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence &quot;John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game&quot;, “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. &quot; &quot;Play the game&quot; means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to &quot;extract the essence&quot; and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1984<br /> *廖七一.当代西方翻译理论探索 [M].译林出版社，2000<br /> *刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社， 2009.9<br /> *方梦之. 中国译学大辞典[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2011<br /> *林敏煜.浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [J].文教资料 2008：61-62<br /> *崔建周，卢静.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [J]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 2006，19(3) ：106-108 <br /> *徐向晖.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨 [J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报 2010，9(1) ：88-89<br /> *杨山青，饶家林. 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用 [J]. 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报 2010（1）：41-42<br /> *胡爱萍. 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究 [J].铜陵学院学报 2014：81<br /> *王小丹. 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[J].陕西师范大学学报2009：131-131<br /> *纽马克. 翻译问题探讨[M]. 上海外语教育出版社，2001<br /> *Tam Jae-hee. [Nida on Translation] [M]. Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company] 1984<br /> *Liao Qiyi. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] [M]. 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London: Prentice Hall International (UK), 1988<br /> <br /> ==A study on the division of western translation theories 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;刘柳 Liu Liu &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br /> <br /> ==='''Keywords'''===<br /> <br /> western translation theories,<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 西方翻译理论划分之研究<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 西方翻译理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅰ.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the &quot;three principles of translation&quot; by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, &quot;Cannibalism&quot;, and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of &quot;différance&quot; deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of &quot;pure language&quot; deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Translation in Ancient Times'''====<br /> <br /> The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero'''=====<br /> <br /> The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', &quot;...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus'''=====<br /> <br /> Heratius was deeply influenced by Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be &quot;sense for sense&quot;. At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that &quot;a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word&quot;. This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation.&quot;(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.3 St. Jerome'''=====<br /> <br /> St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.4 St. Augustine'''=====<br /> <br /> St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use &quot;simple&quot;, &quot;elegant&quot;, or &quot;sacred&quot; style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use &quot;simple&quot; style when translating enlightment texts, use &quot;elegant&quot; style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use &quot;sacred&quot; style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the &quot;semiotics theory&quot; of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the &quot;significatio&quot;, &quot;sonus&quot; and &quot;judgment&quot; in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.2.1 Manlius Boethius'''=====<br /> <br /> Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express &quot;truth without error&quot;, the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.2.2 Dante'''=====<br /> <br /> Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 Translation in Renaissance'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.3.1 Martin Luther'''=====<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, &quot;we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot; (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, &quot;let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German.&quot; (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.3.2 Etienne Dolet'''=====<br /> <br /> Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.1 John Dryden'''=====<br /> <br /> John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, &quot;only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's&quot;. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler'''=====<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation: 1) The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work. 2) The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. 3) The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work. In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get &quot;the same strong feeling&quot; (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 164). The three principles of translation, which are &quot;the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work&quot;, &quot;the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original&quot; and &quot;the translation should have all the ease of original composition&quot; became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.3 Matthw Arnold'''=====<br /> <br /> In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 134-135)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.4 Francis W. Newman'''=====<br /> <br /> Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view. Newman's viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi,2004: 135-136)<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher'''=====<br /> <br /> Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpretating and translation, his views on interpretating waere wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpretating is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpretating is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.<br /> <br /> ====='''2.4.6 Wilhelmvon Humboldt'''=====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.1 Federov'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.2 Roman Jakobson'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.3 John Catford'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.4 Eugene A. Nida'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.5 James Holmes'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''2.5.6 Lawrence Venuti'''=====<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅲ.Discussion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅳ.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==<br /> &lt;center&gt;陈莎 Chen Sha &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper makes a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theory and J. C. Catford's translation theory from the perspective of their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding such concepts as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic school of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theory from different perspectives, and the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influence on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，并且同一个术语在两种译论中也被赋予了不同的含义，因此也对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握两种理论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===2. Linguistic Foundation===<br /> Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, they are based on different linguistic theories. <br /> <br /> Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theory is mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established. Based on transformative-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:<br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha1.jpg]]<br /> <br /> In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida breaks through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)<br /> <br /> In summary, Nida breaks through the limitations of the traditional translation view that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that through the transformation of deep structure between languages, the faithfulness to the source language can be guaranteed to the greatest extent. At the same time, as the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure, the smoothness of the target language can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu &amp; Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theory breaks through the formal constraints in translation and retains the content of the source language, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practice.<br /> <br /> In contrast, Catford's translation theory is mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language, and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. However, Catford does not adopt these two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from four levels, namely, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be simultaneously carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation at that level is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br /> <br /> In summary, Catford’s translation theory is based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics in his translation theory in a selective way, which makes his translation theory innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday’s systematic linguistics.<br /> <br /> ===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===<br /> <br /> ====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====<br /> Nida's translation theory mainly serves the translation of The Bible, with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey &quot;the will of God” . (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> In Nida’s opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in his process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found for communication. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida's translation theory, Catford did not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focused on the essence of translation, that is, what is translation. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture, and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences. According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meaning. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, but this is also why Catford’s translation theory arouses suspicion of other scholars. Readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theory. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> ====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====<br /> Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories. <br /> In Nida's translation theory, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information, which means that its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, such as poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible. <br /> <br /> Catford regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms includes phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to raw materials, including phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theory, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems. Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages cannot be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford translation theory different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)<br /> <br /> ====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====<br /> Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of language and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of hoe the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88) In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, the translator can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text or when the structure of the original text is cumbersome and difficult to understand. In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and holds that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes reader response. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)<br /> <br /> Catford believes that &quot;translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language.&quot; (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word &quot;text&quot;, but &quot;textual materials&quot;, because he believed that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon, and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence, that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to. Apparently, according to his theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist at the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theory seems to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 45-46)<br /> <br /> In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizng equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of the translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theory focuses on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====<br /> No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford. <br /> <br /> In the book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida pointed that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called &quot;closest&quot; and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time. Therefore, the translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theory is concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted in the target language, which is of course impossible. Therefore, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br /> <br /> Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book A linguistic Theory of Translation, he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford used &quot;replacement&quot; to correspond to Nida's &quot;reproduction&quot;, just because he realized that different languages are different systems that could never be coincided with each other. As a result, there would never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages. Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new view, that is, different languages are different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)<br /> <br /> All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s view of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard for translation equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===4. Significance===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====<br /> Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> =====4.2 Influences in China=====<br /> In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different. As soon as Nida’s translation theory was introduced, the research and citation of it achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theory were published on China Translation, the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theory were published on such core journals as Chinese Science and Technology Translation from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br /> <br /> Compared with Nida's translation theory, Catford's translation theory on the contrry has not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theory were published on Chinese Science and Technology Translation from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident. <br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha2.jpg]]<br /> <br /> [[File:Chen Sha3.jpg]]<br /> <br /> In summary, compared with Catford's translation theory, which is abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theory is more easily accepted and plays a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Limitations====<br /> Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theory obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of The Bible, and the specific purpose of The Bible to educate and influence people can make it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way. However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> As soon as Catford's theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles is brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford is conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practice, but has little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford are simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it will also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. “校园英语” [Campus English] 241.<br /> <br /> Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''文教资料'' [Cultural and Educational Materials] 44-46.<br /> <br /> Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. “国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics] 1-7.<br /> <br /> Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's &quot;Equivalence&quot; Translation Theory]. “哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute] 93-95.<br /> <br /> Shi Xishu &amp; Du Ping. 石锡书 &amp; 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theory]. “翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science] 69-71.<br /> <br /> Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. “重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University] 85-89.<br /> <br /> Catford, J. C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶Xu Mengdie ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student no.202020080657 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br /> This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br /> 本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> 1. Research Background<br /> <br /> With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). He distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br /> The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br /> <br /> 2. Research Method<br /> <br /> Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound,etc.<br /> <br /> Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br /> <br /> ===II.Literature Review===<br /> Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br /> <br /> [[File:A.png]]<br /> <br /> Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br /> <br /> [[File:8.png]]<br /> <br /> Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br /> <br /> As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br /> <br /> Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are &quot;Chinese new poetry&quot;, &quot;poem translation&quot;, &quot;the beauty of painting&quot; in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br /> <br /> ====III.Discussion====<br /> Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences. <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the &quot;order&quot; and &quot;benevolence&quot; mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc. (蒋洪新，2001). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name &quot;imagism&quot; for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br /> <br /> In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br /> <br /> ====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br /> <br /> 太阳辛苦了一天，<br /> 赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br /> 喜得满面通红，<br /> 一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br /> <br /> This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br /> <br /> ''&quot;这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。&quot; （《冬夜》评论）<br /> <br /> &quot;Don’t use such an expression as &quot;dim lands of peace.&quot; It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.&quot; (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br /> <br /> “落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”&quot;A wet leaf that clings to the threshold.&quot; <br /> <br /> This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here &quot;wet leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are two different images but the verb &quot;cling&quot; is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both &quot;fallen leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. &quot;Blue, blue is the grass about the river&quot;, &quot;White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door.&quot; There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words &quot;青青&quot; and &quot;皎皎&quot;, which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br /> <br /> Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br /> <br /> ====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Wen Yiduo, 1926). In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br /> <br /> Sea Fever<br /> by： John Masefield<br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br /> <br /> And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br /> <br /> And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br /> <br /> Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br /> <br /> And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br /> <br /> To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br /> <br /> And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br /> <br /> 还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br /> <br /> 海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br /> <br /> 是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br /> <br /> 再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br /> <br /> 走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br /> <br /> 我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br /> <br /> 临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。<br /> <br /> John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations &quot;a star to steer/ a clear call, etc.&quot; are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, &quot;I must go down to the seas again&quot;, which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br /> <br /> To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, &quot;I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,&quot; &quot;again&quot; this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and &quot;lonely sea and the sky &quot; was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom &quot;天涯海角&quot;. &quot;To steer&quot; this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-&quot;做她的向导&quot; to ensure the balance of translation.<br /> Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (诗歌节奏的研究). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br /> <br /> Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert&quot; (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br /> <br /> Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music&quot;. Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br /> <br /> ====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br /> <br /> Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br /> <br /> In a Station of the Metro<br /> The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br /> Petals on a wet, black bough.<br /> <br /> This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is &quot;word&quot;, which is distinct from &quot;syllable&quot; in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br /> Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be &quot;pure form&quot;. So he appealed to &quot;beauty of architecture&quot; and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br /> <br /> Thursday<br /> ——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br /> <br /> And if I loved you Wednesday, <br /> <br /> Well, what is that to you?<br /> <br /> I do not love you Thursday— <br /> <br /> So much is true. <br /> <br /> And why you come complaining <br /> <br /> Is more than I can see.<br /> <br /> I loved you Wednesday,<br /> <br /> —yes—but what Is that to me?<br /> <br /> 礼拜四<br /> <br /> 即使我礼拜三爱你，<br /> <br /> 你管它做什么？<br /> <br /> 礼拜四我并不爱你，<br /> <br /> 却一点也不错。<br /> <br /> 我真不懂，你何为还<br /> <br /> 找着我来纠缠。<br /> <br /> 礼拜三我爱你—对—<br /> <br /> 可是那与我又何干？<br /> <br /> This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, &quot;—yes—but what/Is that to me?&quot;, to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word &quot;—yes—&quot; into the verse before the last one, &quot;礼拜三我爱你—对—&quot; to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -&quot;And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see&quot;. To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, &quot;你何为还找着我来纠缠&quot; into two verses, &quot;你何为还/找着我来纠缠&quot;. Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added &quot;却&quot; to echo &quot;可是&quot; in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br /> In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br /> <br /> ====4.Conclusion====<br /> To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take &quot;order&quot; as &quot;balance&quot;. His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br /> Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br /> <br /> ===V.Reference===<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br /> <br /> Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br /> <br /> Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br /> <br /> Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br /> <br /> Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br /> <br /> Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br /> <br /> Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br /> <br /> Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br /> <br /> Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br /> <br /> Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem &quot;Reminicence of Chrysanthemum&quot;].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's &quot;I am a Cat&quot; with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br /> <br /> This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br /> <br /> Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this &quot;subjectivity&quot; and &quot;conceptualization&quot; and their closely related &quot;perspectives&quot; and &quot;perspectives&quot;. The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of &quot;cognitive narrative&quot; contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br /> <br /> Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The &quot;subject&quot; is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective&quot; is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the &quot;viewpoint&quot; (viewpoint). In other words, &quot;viewpoint&quot; is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br /> <br /> In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br /> <br /> Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br /> <br /> Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br /> <br /> Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br /> <br /> If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br /> <br /> If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being &quot;norms&quot; and &quot;purpose,&quot; which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br /> <br /> The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a &quot;cultural and ideological turn&quot; from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on &quot;translation as rewriting,&quot; &quot;translation of gender,&quot; &quot;postcolonial translation theory,&quot; &quot;(non)visibility of translation,&quot; and &quot;power networks of translation,&quot; among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on &quot;people,&quot; with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br /> <br /> On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The &quot;shift&quot; is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, &quot;conversion operations&quot; refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br /> <br /> Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an &quot;equivalent&quot; translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br /> <br /> In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br /> <br /> <br /> '''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br /> <br /> In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;objective grasping,&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;D mode.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;subjective grasping&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;I-mode&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br /> When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject &quot;conceptually splits&quot; itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br /> <br /> <br /> ⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br /> b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br /> c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br /> （深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br /> <br /> <br /> As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br /> I will now mention what Langacker calls the &quot;stage model&quot;. The &quot;stage model&quot; is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of &quot;speakers&quot;. According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the &quot;subject&quot; of the concept and the object of expression is the &quot;object&quot; of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is &quot;off-stage&quot;. From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is &quot;on-stage&quot;. A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the &quot;off-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the &quot;on-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br /> <br /> Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called &quot;I-mode&quot; (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is &quot;on-stage&quot; and is often viewed as &quot;situation-centered&quot; and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is &quot;direct experience&quot; and its expression is &quot;non-reporting&quot; in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the &quot;D-mode&quot; (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an &quot;off-stage&quot; and &quot;out-of-situation&quot; mode, so the perspective is literally &quot;extrinsic&quot; and &quot;external&quot; to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the &quot;person-centered&quot; view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is &quot;reportive&quot;. These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br /> <br /> The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or &quot;I-mode,&quot; which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called &quot;subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the &quot;D-mode&quot;, which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a &quot;separation of subject and guest,&quot; so to speak, against the former.<br /> <br /> The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br /> <br /> The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br /> The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br /> <br /> The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as &quot;pochan&quot; and &quot;shito&quot;, respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br /> <br /> In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br /> <br /> First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br /> <br /> 1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;On Stage”<br /> 4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. &quot;On Stage”<br /> <br /> ⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is &quot;On Stage”.)<br /> b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;On stage”.)<br /> b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br /> Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's &quot;The Old Man and the Sea&quot; and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br /> <br /> ⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br /> b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br /> <br /> ⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br /> b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br /> <br /> ⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br /> b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br /> <br /> ⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br /> b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br /> <br /> <br /> '''7. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of &quot;perspective&quot; and &quot;subjectivation,&quot; and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's &quot;cognitive typology&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography:'''<br /> <br /> [1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br /> <br /> [2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br /> <br /> [3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br /> <br /> [4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br /> <br /> [5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br /> <br /> [6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br /> <br /> [7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br /> <br /> [8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br /> <br /> [9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br /> <br /> [10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br /> <br /> ==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br /> '''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br /> '''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br /> '''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br /> <br /> '''1 Introduction'''<br /> Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br /> Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br /> Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br /> <br /> '''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br /> Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br /> '''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br /> '''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br /> On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br /> Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br /> '''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br /> '''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br /> Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br /> '''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br /> Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br /> '''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br /> There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br /> '''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br /> China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br /> '''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br /> The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br /> '''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br /> The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br /> '''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br /> The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br /> '''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br /> '''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br /> '''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br /> The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br /> '''5.2 Block Model'''<br /> The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br /> '''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br /> Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br /> '''5.4 Integration Model'''<br /> The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br /> '''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br /> When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br /> '''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br /> As the name implies, &quot;literal translation&quot; is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br /> The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br /> '''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br /> Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br /> In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br /> By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br /> '''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br /> There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br /> When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br /> '''7 Conclusion'''<br /> Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br /> In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> *Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br /> *Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br /> *Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br /> *Juan Bai. 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Kang Lingfeng